Book: A Theologico Political Treatise [Part II]

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(79) So, too, when Elisha would revive the boy who was believed to be dead,
he was obliged to bend over him several times until the flesh of the child
waxed warm, and at last he opened his eyes (2 Kings iv:34, 35).

(80) Again, in John's Gospel (chap. ix.) certain acts are mentioned as
performed by Christ preparatory to healing the blind man, and there are
numerous other instances showing that something further than the absolute
fiat of God is required for working a miracle.

(81) Wherefore we may believe that, although the circumstances attending
miracles are not related always or in full detail, yet a miracle was never
performed without them.

(82) This is confirmed by Exodus xiv:27, where it is simply stated that
"Moses stretched forth his hand, and the waters of the sea returned to their
strength in the morning," no mention being made of a wind; but in the song
of Moses (Exod. xv:10) we read, "Thou didst blow with Thy wind (i.e. with a
very strong wind), and the sea covered them." (83) Thus the attendant
circumstance is omitted in the history, and the miracle is thereby enhanced.

(84) But perhaps someone will insist that we find many things in Scripture
which seem in nowise explicable by natural causes, as for instance, that the
sins of men and their prayers can be the cause of rain and of the earth's
fertility, or that faith can heal the blind, and so on. (85) But I think
I have already made sufficient answer: I have shown that Scripture does not
explain things by their secondary causes, but only narrates them in the
order and the style which has most power to move men, and especially
uneducated men, to devotion; and therefore it speaks inaccurately of God and
of events, seeing that its object is not to convince the reason, but to
attract and lay hold of the imagination. (86) If the Bible were to describe
the destruction of an empire in the style of political historians, the
masses would remain unstirred, whereas the contrary is the case when it
adopts the method of poetic description, and refers all things
immediately to God. (87) When, therefore, the Bible says that the earth is
barren because of men's sins, or that the blind were healed by faith, we
ought to take no more notice than when it says that God is angry at men's
sins, that He is sad, that He repents of the good He has promised and done;
or that on seeing a sign he remembers something He had promised, and other
similar expressions, which are either thrown out poetically or related
according to the opinion and prejudices of the writer.

(88) We may, then, be absolutely certain that every event which is truly
described in Scripture necessarily happened, like everything else, according
to natural laws; and if anything is there set down which can be proved in
set terms to contravene the order of nature, or not to be deducible
therefrom, we must believe it to have been foisted into the sacred writings
by irreligious hands; for whatsoever is contrary to nature is also contrary
to reason, and whatsoever is contrary to reason is absurd, and, ipso facto,
to be rejected.

(89) There remain some points concerning the interpretation of miracles to
be noted, or rather to be recapitulated, for most of them have been already
stated. (90) These I proceed to discuss in the fourth division of my
subject, and I am led to do so lest anyone should, by wrongly interpreting a
miracle, rashly suspect that he has found something in Scripture contrary to
human reason.

(91) It is very rare for men to relate an event simply as it happened,
without adding any element of their own judgment. (92) When they see or hear
anything new, they are, unless strictly on their guard, so occupied with
their own preconceived opinions that they perceive something quite
different from the plain facts seen or heard, especially if such facts
surpass the comprehension of the beholder or hearer, and, most of all, if he
is interested in their happening in a given way.

(93) Thus men relate in chronicles and histories their own opinions rather
than actual events, so that one and the same event is so differently related
by two men of different opinions, that it seems like two separate
occurrences; and, further, it is very easy from historical chronicles to
gather the personal opinions of the historian.

(94) I could cite many instances in proof of this from the writings both of
natural philosophers and historians, but I will content myself with one only
from Scripture, and leave the reader to judge of the rest.

(95) In the time of Joshua the Hebrews held the ordinary opinion that the
sun moves with a daily motion, and that the earth remains at rest; to this
preconceived opinion they adapted the miracle which occurred during their
battle with the five kings. (96) They did not simply relate that that day
was longer than usual, but asserted that the sun and moon stood still, or
ceased from their motion - a statement which would be of great service to
them at that time in convincing and proving by experience to the Gentiles,
who worshipped the sun, that the sun was under the control of another deity
who could compel it to change its daily course. (97) Thus, partly through
religious motives, partly through preconceived opinions, they conceived of
and related the occurrence as something quite different from what really
happened.

(98) Thus in order to interpret the Scriptural miracles and understand from
the narration of them how they really happened, it is necessary to know the
opinions of those who first related them, and have recorded them for us in
writing, and to distinguish such opinions from the actual impression made
upon their senses, otherwise we shall confound opinions and judgments with
the actual miracle as it really occurred: nay, further, we shall confound
actual events with symbolical and imaginary ones. (99) For many things are
narrated in Scripture as real, and were believed to be real, which were in
fact only symbolical and imaginary. (100) As, for instance, that God came
down from heaven (Exod. xix:28, Deut. v:28), and that Mount Sinai smoked
because God descended upon it surrounded with fire; or, again that Elijah
ascended into heaven in a chariot of fire, with horses of fire; all these
things were assuredly merely symbols adapted to the opinions of those who
have handed them down to us as they were represented to them, namely, as
real. (101) All who have any education know that God has no right hand nor
left; that He is not moved nor at rest, nor in a particular place, but that
He is absolutely infinite and contains in Himself all perfections.

(102) These things, I repeat, are known to whoever judges of things by the
perception of pure reason, and not according as his imagination is affected
by his outward senses. (103) Following the example of the masses who imagine
a bodily Deity, holding a royal court with a throne on the convexity of
heaven, above the stars, which are believed to be not very, far off from the
earth.

(104) To these and similar opinions very many narrations in Scripture are
adapted, and should not, therefore, be mistaken by philosophers for
realities.

(105) Lastly, in order to understand, in the case of miracles, what actually
took place, we ought to be familiar with Jewish phrases and metaphors;
anyone who did not make sufficient allowance for these, would be continually
seeing miracles in Scripture where nothing of the kind is intended by the
writer; he would thus miss the knowledge not only of what actually happened,
but also of the mind of the writers of the sacred text. (106) For instance,
Zechariah speaking of some future war says (chap. xiv;7): "It shall be one
day which shall be known to the Lord, not day, nor night; but at even time
it shall be light." In these words he seems to predict a great miracle, yet
he only means that the battle will be doubtful the whole day, that the issue
will be known only to God, but that in the evening they will gain the
victory: the prophets frequently used to predict victories and defeats of
the nations in similar phrases. (107) Thus Isaiah, describing the
destruction of Babylon, says (chap. xiii.): "The stars of heaven, and the
constellations thereof, shall not give their light; the sun shall be
darkened in his going forth, and the moon shall not cause her light to
shine." (108) Now I suppose no one imagines that at the destruction of
Babylon these phenomena actually occurred any more than that which the
prophet adds, "For I will make the heavens to tremble, and remove the earth
out of her place."

(109) So, too, Isaiah in foretelling to the Jews that they would return from
Babylon to Jerusalem in safety, and would not suffer from thirst on their
journey, says: "And they thirsted not when He led them through the deserts;
He caused the waters to flow out of the rocks for them; He clave the rocks,
and the waters gushed out." (110) These words merely mean that the Jews,
like other people, found springs in the desert, at which they quenched their
thirst; for when the Jews returned to Jerusalem with the consent of Cyrus,
it is admitted that no similar miracles befell them.

(111) In this way many occurrences in the Bible are to be regarded merely as
Jewish expressions. (112) There is no need for me to go through them in
detail; but I will call attention generally to the fact that the Jews
employed such phrases not only rhetorically, but also, and indeed chiefly,
from devotional motives. (113) Such is the reason for the substitution of
"bless God" for "curse God" in 1 Kings xxi:10, and Job ii:9, and for all
things being referred to God, whence it appears that the Bible seems to
relate nothing but miracles, even when speaking of the most ordinary
occurrences, as in the examples given above.

(114) Hence we must believe that when the Bible says that the Lord hardened
Pharaoh's heart, it only means that Pharaoh was obstinate; when it says that
God opened the windows of heaven, it only means that it rained very hard,
and so on. (115) When we reflect on these peculiarities, and also on the
fact that most things are related very shortly, with very little details and
almost in abridgments, we shall see that there is hardly anything in
Scripture which can be proved contrary to natural reason, while, on the
other hand, many things which before seemed obscure, will after a little
consideration be understood and easily explained.

(116) I think I have now very clearly explained all that I proposed to
explain, but before I finish this chapter I would call attention to the fact
that I have adopted a different method in speaking of miracles to that which
I employed in treating of prophecy. (117) Of prophecy I have asserted
nothing which could not be inferred from promises revealed in Scripture,
whereas in this chapter I have deduced my conclusions solely from the
principles ascertained by the natural light of reason. (118) I have
proceeded in this way advisedly, for prophecy, in that it surpasses human
knowledge, is a purely theological question; therefore, I knew that I could
not make any assertions about it, nor learn wherein it consists, except
through deductions from premises that have been revealed; therefore I was
compelled to collate the history of prophecy, and to draw therefrom certain
conclusions which would teach me, in so far as such teaching is possible,
the nature and properties of the gift. (119) But in the case of miracles, as
our inquiry is a question purely philosophical (namely, whether anything can
happen which contravenes or does not follow from the laws of nature), I was
not under any such necessity: I therefore thought it wiser to unravel the
difficulty through premises ascertained and thoroughly known by could also
easily have solved the problem merely from the doctrines and fundamental
principles of Scripture: in order that everyone may acknowledge this, I will
briefly show how it could be done.

(120) Scripture makes the general assertion in several passages that
nature's course is fixed and unchangeable. (121) In Ps. cxlviii:6, for
instance, and Jer. xxxi:35. (122) The wise man also, in Eccles. i:10,
distinctly teaches that "there is nothing new under the sun," and in verses
11, 12, illustrating the same idea, he adds that although something
occasionally happens which seems new, it is not really new, but "hath been
already of old time, which was before us, whereof there is no remembrance,
neither shall there be any remembrance of things that are to come with
those that come after." (123) Again in chap. iii:11, he says, "God hath made
everything beautiful in his time," and immediately afterwards adds, "I know
that whatsoever God doeth, it shall be for ever; nothing can be put to it,
nor anything taken from it."

(124) Now all these texts teach most distinctly that nature preserves a
fixed and unchangeable order, and that God in all ages, known and unknown,
has been the same; further, that the laws of nature are so perfect, that
nothing can be added thereto nor taken therefrom; and, lastly, that miracles
only appear as something new because of man's ignorance.

(125) Such is the express teaching of Scripture: nowhere does Scripture
assert that anything happens which contradicts, or cannot follow from the
laws of nature; and, therefore, we should not attribute to it such a
doctrine.

(126) To these considerations we must add, that miracles require causes and
attendant circumstances, and that they follow, not from some mysterious
royal power which the masses attribute to God, but from the Divine rule and
decree, that is (as we have shown from Scripture itself) from the laws and
order of nature; lastly, that miracles can be wrought even by false
prophets, as is proved from Deut. xiii. and Matt. xxiv:24.

(127) The conclusion, then, that is most plainly put before us is, that
miracles were natural occurrences, and must therefore be so explained as to
appear neither new (in the words of Solomon) nor contrary to nature, but, as
far as possible, in complete agreement with ordinary events. (128) This can
easily be done by anyone, now that I have set forth the rules drawn from
Scripture. (129) Nevertheless, though I maintain that Scripture teaches this
doctrine, I do not assert that it teaches it as a truth necessary to
salvation, but only that the prophets were in agreement with ourselves on
the point; therefore everyone is free to think on the subject as he
likes, according as he thinks it best for himself, and most likely to
conduce to the worship of God and to singlehearted religion.

(130) This is also the opinion of Josephus, for at the conclusion of the
second book of his "Antiquities," he writes: Let no man think this story
incredible of the sea's dividing to save these people, for we find it in
ancient records that this hath been seen before, whether by God's
extraordinary will or by the course of nature it is indifferent. (131) The
same thing happened one time to the Macedonians, under the command of
Alexander, when for want of another passage the Pamphylian Sea divided to
make them way; God's Providence making use of Alexander at that time as His
instrument for destroying the Persian Empire. (132) This is attested by all
the historians who have pretended to write the Life of that Prince. (133)
But people are at liberty to think what they please."

(134) Such are the words of Josephus, and such is his opinion on faith in
miracles.





CHAPTER VII. - OF THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE

(1) When people declare, as all are ready, to do, that the Bible is the Word
of God teaching man true blessedness and the way of salvation, they
evidently do not mean what they, say; for the masses take no pains at all to
live according to Scripture, and we see most people endeavouring to hawk
about their own commentaries as the word of God, and giving their best
efforts, under the guise of religion, to compelling others to think as they
do: we generally see, I say, theologians anxious to learn how to wring their
inventions and sayings out of the sacred text, and to fortify, them with
Divine authority. (2) Such persons never display, less scruple or
more zeal than when they, are interpreting Scripture or the mind of the Holy
Ghost; if we ever see them perturbed, it is not that they fear to attribute
some error to the Holy Spirit, and to stray from the right path, but that
they are afraid to be convicted of error by, others, and thus to overthrow
and bring into contempt their own authority. (3) But if men really believed
what they verbally testify of Scripture, they would adopt quite a different
plan of life: their minds would not be agitated by so many contentions, nor
so many hatreds, and they would cease to be excited by such a blind and rash
passion for interpreting the sacred writings, and excogitating novelties
in religion. (4) On the contrary, they would not dare to adopt, as the
teaching of Scripture, anything which they could not plainly deduce
therefrom: lastly, those sacrilegious persons who have dared, in several
passages, to interpolate the Bible, would have shrunk from so great a
crime, and would have stayed their sacrilegious hands.

(5) Ambition and unscrupulousness have waxed so powerful, that religion is
thought to consist, not so much in respecting the writings of the Holy
Ghost, as in defending human commentaries, so that religion is no longer
identified with charity, but with spreading discord and propagating
insensate hatred disguised under the name of zeal for the Lord, and eager
ardour.

(6) To these evils we must add superstition, which teaches men to despise
reason and nature, and only to admire and venerate that which is repugnant
to both: whence it is not wonderful that for the sake of increasing the
admiration and veneration felt for Scripture, men strive to explain it so as
to make it appear to contradict, as far as possible, both one and the other:
thus they dream that most profound mysteries lie hid in the Bible, and weary
themselves out in the investigation of these absurdities, to the neglect of
what is useful. (7) Every result of their diseased imagination they
attribute to the Holy Ghost, and strive to defend with the utmost zeal and
passion; for it is an observed fact that men employ their reason to defend
conclusions arrived at by reason, but conclusions arrived at by the passions
are defended by the passions.

(8) If we would separate ourselves from the crowd and escape from
theological prejudices, instead of rashly accepting human commentaries for
Divine documents, we must consider the true method of interpreting Scripture
and dwell upon it at some length: for if we remain in ignorance of this we
cannot know, certainly, what the Bible and the Holy Spirit wish to teach.

(9)I may sum up the matter by saying that the method of interpreting
Scripture does not widely differ from the method of interpreting nature - in
fact, it is almost the same. (10) For as the interpretation of nature
consists in the examination of the history of nature, and therefrom
deducing definitions of natural phenomena on certain fixed axioms, so
Scriptural interpretation proceeds by the examination of Scripture, and
inferring the intention of its authors as a legitimate conclusion from its
fundamental principles. (11) By working in this manner everyone will
always advance without danger of error - that is, if they admit no
principles for interpreting Scripture, and discussing its contents save such
as they find in Scripture itself - and will be able with equal security to
discuss what surpasses our understanding, and what is known by the natural
light of reason.

(12) In order to make clear that such a method is not only correct, but is
also the only one advisable, and that it agrees with that employed in
interpreting nature, I must remark that Scripture very often treats of
matters which cannot be deduced from principles known to reason: for it is
chiefly made up of narratives and revelation: the narratives generally
contain miracles - that is, as we have shown in the last chapter, relations
of extraordinary natural occurrences adapted to the opinions and judgment of
the historians who recorded them: the revelations also were adapted to the
opinions of the prophets, as we showed in Chap. II., and in themselves
surpassed human comprehension. (13) Therefore the knowledge of all these -
that is, of nearly the whole contents of Scripture, must be sought from
Scripture alone, even as the knowledge of nature is sought from nature. (14)
As for the moral doctrines which are also contained in the Bible, they may
be demonstrated from received axioms, but we cannot prove in the same manner
that Scripture intended to teach them, this can only be learned from
Scripture itself.

(15) If we would bear unprejudiced witness to the Divine origin of
Scripture, we must prove solely on its own authority that it teaches true
moral doctrines, for by such means alone can its Divine origin be
demonstrated: we have shown that the certitude of the prophets depended
chiefly on their having minds turned towards what is just and good,
therefore we ought to have proof of their possessing this quality before we
repose faith in them. (16) From miracles God's divinity cannot be proved, as
I have already shown, and need not now repeat, for miracles could be
wrought by false prophets. (17) Wherefore the Divine origin of Scripture
must consist solely in its teaching true virtue. (18) But we must come to
our conclusion simply on Scriptural grounds, for if we were unable to do so
we could not, unless strongly prejudiced accept the Bible and bear
witness to its Divine origin.

(19) Our knowledge of Scripture must then be looked for in Scripture only.

(20) Lastly, Scripture does not give us definition of things any more than
nature does: therefore, such definitions must be sought in the latter case
from the diverse workings of nature; in the former case, from the various
narratives about the given subject which occur in the Bible.

(21) The universal rule, then, in interpreting Scripture is to accept
nothing as an authoritative Scriptural statement which we do not perceive
very clearly when we examine it in the light of its history. (22) What I
mean by its history, and what should be the chief points elucidated, I will
now explain.

(23) The history of a Scriptural statement comprises -

(23) I. The nature and properties of the language in which the books of the
Bible were written, and in which their authors were, accustomed to speak.
(24) We shall thus be able to investigate every expression by comparison
with common conversational usages.

(25) Now all the writers both of the Old Testament and the New were Hebrews:
therefore, a knowledge of the Hebrew language is before all things
necessary, not only for the comprehension of the Old Testament, which was
written in that tongue, but also of the New: for although the latter was
published in other languages, yet its characteristics are Hebrew.

(26) II. An analysis of each book and arrangement of its contents under
heads; so that we may have at hand the various texts which treat of a given
subject. (27) Lastly, a note of all the passages which are ambiguous or
obscure, or which seem mutually contradictory.

(28) I call passages clear or obscure according as their meaning is inferred
easily or with difficulty in relation to the context, not according as their
truth is perceived easily or the reverse by reason. (29) We are at work not
on the truth of passages, but solely on their meaning. (30) We must take
especial care, when we are in search of the meaning of a text, not to be led
away by our reason in so far as it is founded on principles of natural
knowledge (to say nothing of prejudices): in order not to confound the
meaning of a passage with its truth, we must examine it solely by means of
the signification of the words, or by a reason acknowledging no foundation
but Scripture.

(31) I will illustrate my meaning by an example. (32) The words of Moses,
"God is a fire" and "God is jealous," are perfectly clear so long as we
regard merely the signification of the words, and I therefore reckon them

among the clear passages, though in relation to reason and truth they are
most obscure: still, although the literal meaning is repugnant to the
natural light of reason, nevertheless, if it cannot be clearly overruled on
grounds and principles derived from its Scriptural "history," it, that is,
the literal meaning, must be the one retained: and contrariwise if these
passages literally interpreted are found to clash with principles derived
from Scripture, though such literal interpretation were in absolute harmony
with reason, they must be interpreted in a different manner, i.e.
metaphorically.

(33) If we would know whether Moses believed God to be a fire or not, we
must on no account decide the question on grounds of the reasonableness or
the reverse of such an opinion, but must judge solely by the other opinions
of Moses which are on record.

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