Book: A Theologico Political Treatise [Part II]

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(34) In the present instance, as Moses says in several other passages that
God has no likeness to any visible thing, whether in heaven or in earth, or
in the water, either all such passages must be taken metaphorically, or else
the one before us must be so explained. (35) However, as we should depart as
little as possible from the literal sense, we must first ask whether this
text, God is a fire, admits of any but the literal meaning - that is,
whether the word fire ever means anything besides ordinary natural fire.
(36) If no such second meaning can be found, the text must be taken
literally, however repugnant to reason it may be: and all the other
passages, though in complete accordance with reason, must be brought into
harmony with it. (37) If the verbal expressions would not admit of being
thus harmonized, we should have to set them down as irreconcilable, and
suspend our judgment concerning them. (38) However, as we find the name fire
applied to anger and jealousy (see Job xxxi:12) we can thus easily reconcile
the words of Moses, and legitimately conclude that the two propositions God
is a fire, and God is jealous, are in meaning identical.

(39) Further, as Moses clearly teaches that God is jealous, and nowhere
states that God is without passions or emotions, we must evidently infer
that Moses held this doctrine himself, or at any rate, that he wished to
teach it, nor must we refrain because such a belief seems contrary to
reason: for as we have shown, we cannot wrest the meaning of texts to suit
the dictates of our reason, or our preconceived opinions. (40) The whole
knowledge of the Bible must be sought solely from itself.

(41) III. Lastly, such a history should relate the environment of all the
prophetic books extant; that is, the life, the conduct, and the studies of
the author of each book, who he was, what was the occasion, and the epoch of
his writing, whom did he write for, and in what language. (42) Further,
it should inquire into the fate of each book: how it was first received,
into whose hands it fell, how many different versions there were of it, by
whose advice was it received into the Bible, and, lastly, how all the books
now universally accepted as sacred, were united into a single whole.

(43) All such information should, as I have said, be contained in the
"history" of Scripture. (44) For, in order to know what statements are set
forth as laws, and what as moral precepts, it is important to be acquainted
with the life, the conduct, and the pursuits of their author: moreover,
it becomes easier to explain a man's writings in proportion as we have more
intimate knowledge of his genius and temperament.

(45) Further, that we may not confound precepts which are eternal with those
which served only a temporary purpose, or were only meant for a few, we
should know what was the occasion, the time, the age, in which each book was
written, and to what nation it was addressed.(46) Lastly, we should have
knowledge on the other points I have mentioned, in order to be sure,
in addition to the authenticity of the work, that it has not been tampered
with by sacrilegious hands, or whether errors can have crept in, and, if so,
whether they have been corrected by men sufficiently skilled and worthy of
credence. (47) All these things should be known, that we may not be led away
by blind impulse to accept whatever is thrust on our notice, instead of only
that which is sure and indisputable.

(48) Now when we are in possession of this history of Scripture, and have
finally decided that we assert nothing as prophetic doctrine which does not
directly follow from such history, or which is not clearly deducible from
it, then, I say, it will be time to gird ourselves for the task of
investigating the mind of the prophets and of the Holy Spirit. (49) But in
this further arguing, also, we shall require a method very like that
employed in interpreting nature from her history. (50) As in the examination
of natural phenomena we try first to investigate what is most universal
and common to all nature - such, for instance, as motion and rest, and their
laws and rules, which nature always observes, and through which she
continually works - and then we proceed to what is less universal; so, too,
in the history of Scripture, we seek first for that which is most universal,
and serves for the basis and foundation of all Scripture, a doctrine, in
fact, that is commended by all the prophets as eternal and most profitable
to all men. (51) For example, that God is one, and that He is omnipotent,
that He alone should be worshipped, that He has a care for all men, and that
He especially loves those who adore Him and love their neighbour as
themselves, &c. (52) These and similar doctrines, I repeat, Scripture
everywhere so clearly and expressly teaches, that no one was ever in doubt
of its meaning concerning them.

(53) The nature of God, His manner of regarding and providing for things,
and similar doctrines, Scripture nowhere teaches professedly, and as eternal
doctrine; on the contrary, we have shown that the prophets themselves did
not agree on the subject; therefore, we must not lay down any doctrine as
Scriptural on such subjects, though it may appear perfectly clear on
rational grounds.

(54) From a proper knowledge of this universal doctrine of Scripture, we
must then proceed to other doctrines less universal, but which,
nevertheless, have regard to the general conduct of life, and flow from the
universal doctrine like rivulets from a source; such are all particular
external manifestations of true virtue, which need a given occasion for
their exercise; whatever is obscure or ambiguous on such points in Scripture
must be explained and defined by its universal doctrine; with regard to
contradictory instances, we must observe the occasion and the time in which
they were written. (55) For instance, when Christ says, "Blessed are they
that mourn, for they shall be comforted" we do not know, from the actual
passage, what sort of mourners are meant; as, however, Christ afterwards
teaches that we should have care for nothing, save only for the kingdom of
God and His righteousness, which is commended as the highest good (see
Matt. vi;33), it follows that by mourners He only meant those who mourn for
the kingdom of God and righteousness neglected by man: for this would be the
only cause of mourning to those who love nothing but the Divine kingdom and
justice, and who evidently despise the gifts of fortune. (56) So, too, when
Christ says: "But if a man strike you on the right cheek, turn to him the
left also," and the words which follow.

(57) If He had given such a command, as a lawgiver, to judges, He would
thereby have abrogated the law of Moses, but this He expressly says He did
not do (Matt. v:17). (58) Wherefore we must consider who was the speaker,
what was the occasion, and to whom were the words addressed. (59) Now Christ
said that He did not ordain laws as a legislator, but inculcated precepts as
a teacher: inasmuch as He did not aim at correcting outward actions so
much as the frame of mind. (60) Further, these words were spoken to men who
were oppressed, who lived in a corrupt commonwealth on the brink of ruin,
where justice was utterly neglected. (61) The very doctrine inculcated here
by Christ just before the destruction of the city was also taught by
Jeremiah before the first destruction of Jerusalem, that is, in similar
circumstances, as we see from Lamentations iii:25-30.

(62) Now as such teaching was only set forth by the prophets in times of
oppression, and was even then never laid down as a law; and as, on the other
hand, Moses (who did not write in times of oppression, but - mark this -
strove to found a well-ordered commonwealth), while condemning envy and
hatred of one's neighbour, yet ordained that an eye should be given for
an eye, it follows most clearly from these purely Scriptural grounds that
this precept of Christ and Jeremiah concerning submission to injuries was
only valid in places where justice is neglected, and in a time of
oppression, but does not hold good in a well-ordered state.

(63) In a well-ordered state where justice is administered every one is
bound, if he would be accounted just, to demand penalties before the judge
(see Lev:1), not for the sake of vengeance (Lev. xix:17, 18), but in order
to defend justice and his country's laws, and to prevent the wicked
rejoicing in their wickedness. (64) All this is plainly in accordance with
reason. (65) I might cite many other examples in the same manner, but I
think the foregoing are sufficient to explain my meaning and the utility of
this method, and this is all my present purpose. (66) Hitherto we have only
shown how to investigate those passages of Scripture which treat of
practical conduct, and which, therefore, are more easily examined, for on
such subjects there was never really any controversy among the writers of
the Bible.

(67) The purely speculative passages cannot be so easily, traced to their
real meaning: the way becomes narrower, for as the prophets differed in
matters speculative among themselves, and the narratives are in great
measure adapted to the prejudices of each age, we must not, on any, account
infer the intention of one prophet from clearer passages in the writings of
another; nor must we so explain his meaning, unless it is perfectly plain
that the two prophets were at one in the matter.

(68) How we are to arrive at the intention of the prophets in such cases I
will briefly explain. (69) Here, too, we must begin from the most universal
proposition, inquiring first from the most clear Scriptural statements what
is the nature of prophecy or revelation, and wherein does it consist; then
we must proceed to miracles, and so on to whatever is most general till we
come to the opinions of a particular prophet, and, at last, to the meaning
of a particular revelation, prophecy, history, or miracle. (70) We have
already pointed out that great caution is necessary not to confound the mind
of a prophet or historian with the mind of the Holy Spirit and the truth
of the matter; therefore I need not dwell further on the subject. (71) I
would, however, here remark concerning the meaning of revelation, that the
present method only teaches us what the prophets really saw or heard, not
what they desired to signify or represent by symbols. (72) The latter may be
guessed at but cannot be inferred with certainty from Scriptural premises.

(73) We have thus shown the plan for interpreting Scripture, and have, at
the same time, demonstrated that it is the one and surest way of
investigating its true meaning. (74) I am willing indeed to admit that those
persons (if any such there be) would be more absolutely certainly right, who
have received either a trustworthy tradition or an assurance from the
prophets themselves, such as is claimed by the Pharisees; or who have a
pontiff gifted with infallibility in the interpretation of Scripture, such
as the Roman Catholics boast. (75) But as we can never be perfectly sure,
either of such a tradition or of the authority of the pontiff, we cannot
found any certain conclusion on either: the one is denied by the oldest sect
of Christians, the other by the oldest sect of Jews. (76) Indeed, if we
consider the series of years (to mention no other point) accepted by the
Pharisees from their Rabbis, during which time they say they have handed
down the tradition from Moses, we shall find that it is not correct, as I
show elsewhere. (77) Therefore such a tradition should be received with
extreme suspicion; and although, according to our method, we are bound to
consider as uncorrupted the tradition of the Jews, namely, the meaning of
the Hebrew words which we received from them, we may accept the latter while
retaining our doubts about the former.

(78) No one has ever been able to change the meaning of a word in ordinary
use, though many have changed the meaning of a particular sentence. (79)
Such a proceeding would be most difficult; for whoever attempted to change
the meaning of a word, would be compelled, at the same time, to explain all
the authors who employed it, each according to his temperament and
intention, or else, with consummate cunning, to falsify them.

(80) Further, the masses and the learned alike preserve language, but it is
only the learned who preserve the meaning of particular sentences and books:
thus, we may easily imagine that the learned having a very rare book in
their power, might change or corrupt the meaning of a sentence in it, but
they could not alter the signification of the words; moreover, if anyone
wanted to change the meaning of a common word he would not be able to keep
up the change among posterity, or in common parlance or writing.

(81) For these and such-like reasons we may readily conclude that it would
never enter into the mind of anyone to corrupt a language, though the
intention of a writer may often have been falsified by changing his phrases
or interpreting them amiss. (82) As then our method (based on the principle
that the knowledge of Scripture must be sought from itself alone) is the
sole true one, we must evidently renounce any knowledge which it cannot
furnish for the complete understanding of Scripture. (83) I will now point
out its difficulties and shortcomings, which prevent our gaining a complete
and assured knowledge of the Sacred Text.

(84) Its first great difficulty consists in its requiring a thorough
knowledge of the Hebrew language. (85) Where is such knowledge to be
obtained? (86) The men of old who employed the Hebrew tongue have left none
of the principles and bases of their language to posterity; we have from
them absolutely nothing in the way of dictionary, grammar, or rhetoric.

(87) Now the Hebrew nation has lost all its grace and beauty (as one would
expect after the defeats and persecutions it has gone through), and has only
retained certain fragments of its language and of a few books. (88) Nearly
all the names of fruits, birds, and fishes, and many other words have
perished in the wear and tear of time. (89) Further, the meaning of many
nouns and verbs which occur in the Bible are either utterly lost, or are
subjects of dispute. (90) And not only are these gone, but we are lacking in
a knowledge of Hebrew phraseology. (91) The devouring tooth of time has
destroyed turns of expression peculiar to the Hebrews, so that we know them
no more.

(92) Therefore we cannot investigate as we would all the meanings of a
sentence by the uses of the language; and there are many phrases of which
the meaning is most obscure or altogether inexplicable, though the component
words are perfectly plain.

(93) To this impossibility of tracing the history of the Hebrew language
must be added its particular nature and composition: these give rise to so
many ambiguities that it is impossible to find a method which would
enable us to gain a certain knowledge of all the statements in Scripture,
[Endnote 7]. (94) In addition to the sources of ambiguities common to all
languages, there are many peculiar to Hebrew. (95) These, I think, it worth
while to mention.

(96) Firstly, an ambiguity often arises in the Bible from our mistaking one
letter for another similar one. (97) The Hebrews divide the letters of the
alphabet into five classes, according to the five organs of the month
employed in pronouncing them, namely, the lips, the tongue, the teeth, the
palate, and the throat. (98) For instance, Alpha, Ghet, Hgain, He, are
called gutturals, and are barely distinguishable, by any sign that we know,
one from the other. (99) El, which signifies to, is often taken for hgal,
which signifies above, and vice versa. (100) Hence sentences are often
rendered rather ambiguous or meaningless.

(101) A second difficulty arises from the multiplied meaning of conjunctions
and adverbs. (102) For instance, vau serves promiscuously for a particle of
union or of separation, meaning, and, but, because, however, then: ki, has
seven or eight meanings, namely, wherefore, although, if, when, inasmuch as,
because, a burning, &c., and so on with almost all particles.

(103) The third very fertile source of doubt is the fact that Hebrew verbs
in the indicative mood lack the present, the past imperfect, the pluperfect,
the future perfect, and other tenses most frequently employed in other
languages; in the imperative and infinitive moods they are wanting in all
except the present, and a subjunctive mood does not exist. (104) Now,
although all these defects in moods and tenses may be supplied by certain
fundamental rules of the language with ease and even elegance, the ancient
writers evidently neglected such rules altogether, and employed
indifferently future for present and past, and vice versa past for future,
and also indicative for imperative and subjunctive, with the result of
considerable confusion.

(105) Besides these sources of ambiguity there are two others, one very
important. (106) Firstly, there are in Hebrew no vowels; secondly, the
sentences are not separated by any marks elucidating the meaning or
separating the clauses. (107) Though the want of these two has generally
been supplied by points and accents, such substitutes cannot be accepted by
us, inasmuch as they were invented and designed by men of an after age whose
authority should carry no weight. (108) The ancients wrote without points
(that is, without vowels and accents), as is abundantly testified; their
descendants added what was lacking, according to their own ideas of
Scriptural interpretation; wherefore the existing accents and points are
simply current interpretations, and are no more authoritative than any other
commentaries.

(109) Those who are ignorant of this fact cannot justify the author of the
Epistle to the Hebrews for interpreting (chap. xi;21) Genesis (xlvii:31)
very differently from the version given in our Hebrew text as at present
pointed, as though the Apostle had been obliged to learn the meaning of
Scripture from those who added the points. (110) In my opinion the latter
are clearly wrong. (111) In order that everyone may judge for himself, and
also see how the discrepancy arose simply from the want of vowels, I will
give both interpretations. (112)Those who pointed our version read, "And
Israel bent himself over, or (changing Hqain into Aleph, a similar letter)
towards, the head of the bed." (113) The author of the Epistle reads, "And
Israel bent himself over the head of his staff," substituting mate for mita,
from which it only differs in respect of vowels. (114) Now as in this
narrative it is Jacob's age only that is in question, and not his illness,
which is not touched on till the next chapter, it seems more likely that the
historian intended to say that Jacob bent over the head of his staff (a
thing commonly used by men of advanced age for their support) than that he
bowed himself at the head of his bed, especially as for the former reading
no substitution of letters is required. (115) In this example I have desired
not only to reconcile the passage in the Epistle with the passage in
Genesis, but also and chiefly to illustrate how little trust should be
placed in the points and accents which are found in our present Bible, and
so to prove that he who would be without bias in interpreting Scripture
should hesitate about accepting them, and inquire afresh for himself. (116)
Such being the nature and structure of the Hebrew language, one may easily
understand that many difficulties are likely to arise, and that no possible
method could solve all of them. (117) It is useless to hope for a way out of
our difficulties in the comparison of various parallel passages (we have
shown that the only method of discovering the true sense of a passage out of
many alternative ones is to see what are the usages of the language), for
this comparison of parallel passages can only accidentally throw light on a
difficult point, seeing that the prophets never wrote with the express
object of explaining their own phrases or those of other people, and also
because we cannot infer the meaning of one prophet or apostle by the meaning
of another, unless on a purely practical question, not when the matter is
speculative, or if a miracle, or history is being narrated. (118) I might
illustrate my point with instances, for there are many inexplicable phrases
in Scripture, but I would rather pass on to consider the difficulties and
imperfections of the method under discussion.

(119) A further difficulty attends the method, from the fact that it
requires the history of all that has happened to every book in the Bible;
such a history we are often quite unable to furnish. (120) Of the authors,
or (if the expression be preferred), the writers of many of the books, we
are either in complete ignorance, or at any rate in doubt, as I will point
out at length. (121) Further, we do not know either the occasions or the
epochs when these books of unknown authorship were written; we cannot say
into what hands they fell, nor how the numerous varying versions
originated; nor, lastly, whether there were not other versions, now lost.
(122) I have briefly shown that such knowledge is necessary, but I passed
over certain considerations which I will now draw attention to.

(123) If we read a book which contains incredible or impossible narratives,
or is written in a very obscure style, and if we know nothing of its author,
nor of the time or occasion of its being written, we shall vainly endeavour
to gain any certain knowledge of its true meaning. (124) For being in
ignorance on these points we cannot possibly know the aim or intended aim of
the author; if we are fully informed, we so order our thoughts as not to be
in any way prejudiced either in ascribing to the author or him for whom the
author wrote either more or less than his meaning, and we only take into
consideration what the author may have had in his mind, or what the time and
occasion demanded. (125) I think this must be tolerably evident to all.

(126) It often happens that in different books we read histories in
themselves similar, but which we judge very differently, according to the
opinions we have formed of the authors. (127) I remember once to have read
in some book that a man named Orlando Furioso used to drive a kind of winged
monster through the air, fly over any countries he liked, kill unaided vast
numbers of men and giants, and such like fancies, which from the point of
view of reason are obviously absurd. (128) A very similar story I read in
Ovid of Perseus, and also in the books of Judges and Kings of Samson, who
alone and unarmed killed thousands of men, and of Elijah, who flew through
the air, said at last went up to heaven in a chariot of fire, with horses of
fire. (129) All these stories are obviously alike, but we judge them very
differently. (130) The first only sought to amuse, the second had a
political object, the third a religious object.(131) We gather this simply
from the opinions we had previously formed of the authors. (132) Thus it
is evidently necessary to know something of the authors of writings which
are obscure or unintelligible, if we would interpret their meaning; and for
the same reason, in order to choose the proper reading from among a great
variety, we ought to have information as to the versions in which the
differences are found, and as to the possibility of other readings having
been discovered by persons of greater authority.

(133) A further difficulty attends this method in the case of some of the
books of Scripture, namely, that they are no longer extant in their original
language. (133) The Gospel according to Matthew, and certainly the Epistle
to the Hebrews, were written, it is thought, in Hebrew, though they no
longer exist in that form. (134) Aben Ezra affirms in his commentaries that
the book of Job was translated into Hebrew out of another language, and that
its obscurity arises from this fact. (135) I say nothing of the apocryphal
books, for their authority stands on very inferior ground.

(136) The foregoing difficulties in this method of interpreting Scripture
from its own history, I conceive to be so great that I do not hesitate to
say that the true meaning of Scripture is in many places inexplicable, or at
best mere subject for guesswork; but I must again point out, on the other
hand, that such difficulties only arise when we endeavour to follow the
meaning of a prophet in matters which cannot be perceived, but only
imagined, not in things, whereof the understanding can give a clear idea,
and which are conceivable through themselves:, [Endnote 8], matters which by
their nature are easily perceived cannot be expressed so obscurely as to be
unintelligible; as the proverb says, "a word is enough to the wise." (137)
Euclid, who only wrote of matters very simple and easily understood, can
easily be comprehended by anyone in any language; we can follow his
intention perfectly, and be certain of his true meaning, without having a
thorough knowledge of the language in which he wrote; in fact, a quite
rudimentary acquaintance is sufficient. (138) We need make no researches
concerning the life, the pursuits, or the habits of the author; nor need we
inquire in what language, nor when he wrote, nor the vicissitudes of his
book, nor its various readings, nor how, nor by whose advice it has been
received.

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