Book: The Orations of Marcus Tullius Cicero, Volume 4

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XIX. Narration is an explanation of acts that have been done, or of
acts as if they have been done. There are three kinds of narration.
One kind is that in which the cause itself and the whole principle of
the dispute is contained. Another is that in which some digression,
unconnected with the immediate argument, is interposed, either for the
sake of criminating another, or of instituting a comparison, or of
provoking some mirth not altogether unsuitable to the business under
discussion, or else for the sake of amplification. The third kind is
altogether foreign to civil causes, and is uttered or written for the
sake of entertainment, combined with its giving practice, which is not
altogether useless. Of this last there are two divisions, the one of
which is chiefly conversant about things, and the other about persons.
That which is concerned in the discussion and explanation of things
has three parts, fable, history, and argument. Fable is that in which
statements are expressed which are neither true nor probable, as is
this--


"Huge winged snakes, join'd by one common yoke."


History is an account of exploits which have been performed, removed
from the recollection of our own age; of which sort is the statement,
"Appius declared war against the Carthaginians." Argument is an
imaginary case, which still might have happened. Such is this in
Terence--


"For after Sosia became a man."


But that sort of narration which is conversant about persons, is of
such a sort that in it not only the facts themselves, but also the
conversations of the persons concerned and their very minds can be
thoroughly seen, in this way--


"And oft he came to me with mournful voice,
What is your aim, your conduct what? Oh why
Do you this youth with these sad arts destroy?
Why does he fall in love? Why seeks he wine,
And why do you from time to time supply
The means for such excess? You study dress
And folly of all kinds; while he, if left
To his own natural bent, is stern and strict,
Almost beyond the claims of virtue."


In this kind of narration there ought to be a great deal of
cheerfulness wrought up out of the variety of circumstances; out of
the dissimilarity of dispositions; out of gravity, lenity, hope, fear,
suspicion, regret, dissimulation, error, pity, the changes of fortune,
unexpected disaster, sudden joy, and happy results. But these
embellishments may be derived from the precepts which will hereafter
be laid down about elocution.

At present it seems best to speak of that kind of narration which
contains an explanation of the cause under discussion.

XX. It is desirable then that it should have three qualities; that
it should be brief, open, and probable. It will be brief, if the
beginning of it is derived from the quarter from which it ought to be;
and if it is not endeavoured to be extracted from what has been last
said, and if the speaker forbears to enumerate all the parts of
a subject of which it is quite sufficient to state the total
result;--for it is often sufficient to say what has been done, and
there is no necessity for his relating how it was done;--and if the
speaker does not in his narration go on at a greater length than there
is any occasion for, as far as the mere imparting of knowledge is
concerned; and if he does not make a digression to any other topic;
and if he states his case in such a way, that sometimes that which has
not been said may be understood from that which has been said; and if
he passes over not only such topics as may be injurious, but those too
which are neither injurious nor profitable; and if he repeats nothing
more than once; and if he does not at once begin with that topic
which was last mentioned;--and the imitation of brevity takes in many
people, so that, when they think that they are being brief, they are
exceedingly prolix, while they are taking pains to say many things
with brevity, not absolutely to say but few things and no more than
are necessary. For to many men a man appears to speak with brevity who
says, "I went to the house; I called out the servant; he answered
me; I asked for his master; he said that he was not at home." Here,
although he could not have enumerated so many particulars more
concisely, yet, because it would have been enough to say, "He said
that he was not at home," he is prolix on account of the multitude of
circumstances which he mentions. Wherefore, in this kind of narration
also it is necessary to avoid the imitation of brevity, and we must
no less carefully avoid a heap of unnecessary circumstances than a
multitude of words.

But a narration will be able to be open, if those actions are
explained first which have been done first, and if the order of
transactions and times is preserved, so that the things are related as
they have been done, or as it shall seem that they may have been done.
And in framing this narration it will be proper to take care that
nothing be said in a confused or distorted manner; that no digression
be made to any other subject; that the affair may not be traced too
far back, nor carried too far forward; that nothing be passed over
which is connected with the business in hand; and altogether the
precepts which have been laid down about brevity, must be attended to
in this particular also. For it often happens that the truth is but
little understood, more by reason of the prolixity of the speaker,
than of the obscurity of the statement. And it is desirable to use
clear language, which is a point to be dwelt upon when we come to
precepts for elocution.

XXI. A narration will be probable, if in it those characteristics are
visible which are usually apparent in truth; if the dignity of the
persons mentioned is preserved; if the causes of the actions performed
are made plain; if it shall appear that there were facilities for
performing them; if the time was suitable; if there was plenty of
room; if the place is shown to have been suitable for the transaction
which is the subject of the narration; if the whole business, in
short, be adapted to the nature of those who plead, and to the reports
bruited about among the common people, and to the preconceived
opinions of those who hear. And if these principles be observed, the
narration will appear like the truth.

But besides all this, it will be necessary to take care that such a
narration be not introduced when it will be a hindrance, or when it
will be of no advantage; and that it be not related in an unseasonable
place, or in a manner which the cause does not require. It is a
hindrance, when the very narration of what has been done comes at a
time that the hearer has conceived great displeasure at something,
which it will be expedient to mitigate by argument, and by pleading
the whole cause carefully. And when this is the case, it will be
desirable rather to scatter the different portions of the transactions
limb by limb as it were over the cause, and, as promptly as may be,
to adapt them to each separate argument, in order that there may be
a remedy at hand for the wound, and that the defence advanced may at
once mitigate the hatred which has arisen.

Again, a narration is of no advantage when, after our case has once
been set forth by the opposite party, it is of no importance to relate
it a second time or in another manner; or when the whole affair is so
clearly comprehended by the hearers, as they believe at least that it
can do us no good to give them information respecting it in another
fashion. And when this is the case, it is best to abstain from any
narration altogether. It is uttered in an unseasonable place, when it
is not arranged in that part of the speech in which the case requires
it, and concerning this kind of blunder we will speak when we come
to mention the arrangement of the speech. For it is the general
arrangement of the whole that this affects. It is not related in the
manner which the cause requires, when either that point which is
advantageous to the opposite party is explained in a clear and elegant
manner, or when that which may be of benefit to the speaker is stated
in an obscure or careless way. Wherefore, in order that this fault may
be avoided, everything ought to be converted by the speaker to the
advantage of his own cause by passing over all things which make
against it which can be passed over, by touching lightly on those
points which are beneficial to the adversary, and by relating those
which are advantageous to himself carefully and clearly. And now
we seem to have said enough about narration. Let us now pass on in
regular order to the arrangement of the different topics.

XXII An arrangement of the subjects to be mentioned in an argument,
when properly made, renders the whole oration clear and intelligible.
There are two parts in such a division, each of which is especially
connected with the opening of the cause, and with the arrangement of
the whole discussion. One part is that which points out what are the
particulars as to which one is in agreement with the opposite party,
and also what remains in dispute; and from this there is a certain
definite thing pointed out to the hearer, as that to which he should
direct his attention. The other part is that in which the explanation
of those matters on which we are about to speak, is briefly arranged
and pointed out. And this causes the hearer to retain certain things
in his mind, so as to understand that when they have been discussed
the speech will be ended. At present it seems desirable to mention
briefly how it is proper to use each kind of arrangement. And this
arrangement points out what is suitable and what is not suitable; its
duty is to turn that which is suitable to the advantage of its own
side, in this way--"I agree with the opposite party as to the fact,
that a mother has been put to death by her son." Again, on the other
side.--"We are both agreed that Agamemnon was slain by Clytaemnestra"
For in saying this each speaker has laid down that proposition which
was suitable, and nevertheless has consulted the advantage of his own
side.

In the next place, what the matter in dispute is must be explained,
when we come to mention the examination into the excuses which are
alleged. And how that is managed has been already stated.

But the arrangement which embraces the properly distributed explanation
of the facts, ought to have brevity, completeness, conciseness.
Brevity is when no word is introduced which is not necessary. This is
useful in this sort of speaking, because it is desirable to arrest the
attention of the hearer by the facts themselves and the real divisions
of the case, and not by words or extraneous embellishments of diction.
Completeness is that quality by which we embrace every sort of
argument which can have any connexion with the case concerning which
we have got to speak, and in this division we must take care not to
omit any useful topic, not to introduce any such too late, out of its
natural place, for that is the most pernicious and discreditable error
of all. Conciseness in arrangement is preserved if the general classes
of facts are clearly laid down, and are not entangled in a promiscuous
manner with the subordinate divisions. For a class is that which
embraces many subordinate divisions as, "an animal." A subordinate
division is that which is contained in the class as "a horse."
But very often the same thing may be a class to one person, and a
subordinate division to another. For "man" is a subordinate division
of "animal," but a class as to "Theban," or "Trojan."

XXIII And I have been more careful in laying down this definition, in
order that after it has been clearly comprehended with reference to
the general arrangement, a conciseness as to classes or genera may be
preserved throughout the arrangement. For he who arranges his oration
in this manner--"I will prove that by means of the covetousness and
audacity and avarice of our adversaries, all sorts of evils have
fallen on the republic," fails to perceive that in this arrangement of
his, when he intended to mention only classes, he has joined also a
mention of a subordinate division. For covetousness is the general
class under which all desires are comprehended, and beyond all
question avarice is a subordinate division of that class.

We must therefore avoid, after having mentioned a universal class,
then, in the same arrangement, to mention along with it any one of
its subordinate divisions, as if it were something different and
dissimilar. And if there are many subordinate divisions to any
particular class, after that has been simply explained in the first
arrangement of the oration, it will be more easily and conveniently
arranged when we come to the subsequent explanation in the general
statement of the case after the division. And this, too, concerns the
subject of conciseness, that we should not undertake to prove more
things than there is any occasion for, in this way--"I will prove that
the opposite party were able to do what we accuse them of, and had the
inclination to do it, and did it." It is quite enough to prove that
they did it. Or when there is no natural division at all in a cause,
and when it is a simple question that is under discussion, though that
is a thing which cannot be of frequent occurrence, still we must use
careful arrangement. And these other precepts also, with respect to
the division of subjects which have no such great connexion with the
practice of orators, precepts which come into use in treatises in
philosophy, from which we have transferred, hither those which
appeared to be suitable to our purpose, of which we found nothing in
the other arts. And in all these precepts about the division of our
subjects, it will throughout our whole speech be found that every
portion of them must be discussed in the same order as that in which
it has been originally stated, and then, when everything has been
properly explained, let the whole be summed up, and summed up so that
nothing be introduced subsequently besides the conclusion. The old
man in the Andria of Terence arranges briefly and conveniently the
subjects with which he wishes his freedman to become acquainted--


"And thus the life and habits of my son
And my designs respecting his career,
And what I wish your course towards both to be,
Will be quite plain to you."


And accordingly, as he has proposed in his original arrangement, he
proceeds to relate, first the life of his son--


"For when, O Sosia, he became a man,
He was allow'd more liberty"


Then comes his own design--


"And now I take great care"


After that, what he wishes Sosia to do; that he put last in his
original arrangement he now mentions last--


"And now the part is yours" ...


As, therefore, in this instance, he came first to the portion which he
had mentioned first, and so, when he had discussed them all, made an
end of speaking, we too ought to advance to each separate portion of
our subject, and when we had finished every part, to sum up. Now
it appears desirable to proceed in regular order to lay down some
precepts concerning the confirmation of our arguments, as the regular
order of the subject requires.

XXIV Confirmation is that by means of which our speech proceeding in
argument adds belief, and authority, and corroboration to our cause.
As to this part there are certain fixed rules which will be divided
among each separate class of causes. But it appeals to be not an
inconvenient course to disentangle what is not unlike a wood, or a
vast promiscuous miss of materials all jumbled together, and after
that to point out how it may be suitable to corroborate each separate
kind of cause, after we have drawn all our principles of argumentation
from this source. All statements are confirmed by some argument or
other, either by that which is derived from persons, or by that which
is deduced from circumstances. Now we consider that these different
things belong to persons, a name, nature, a way of life, fortune,
custom, affection, pursuits, intentions, actions, accidents, orations.
A name is that which is given to each separate person, so that each
is called by his own proper and fixed appellation. To define nature
itself is difficult, but to enumerate those parts of it which we
require for the laying down of these precepts is more easy.

And these refer partly to that portion of things which is divine, and
partly to that which is mortal. Now of things which are mortal one
part is classed among the race of men, and one among the race of
brutes: and the race of men is distinguished by sex, whether they be
male or female and with respect to their nation, and country, and
kindred, and age, with respect to their nation, whether a man be a
Greek or a barbarian; with respect to their country, whether a man be
an Athenian or a Lacedaemonian; with respect to their kindred, from
what ancestors a man is descended, and who are his relations; with
respect to his age, whether he is a boy, or a youth, or a full
grown man, or an old man. Besides these things, those advantages or
disadvantages which come to a man by nature, whether in respect of
his mind or his body, are taken into consideration, in this
manner:--whether he be strong or weak; whether he be tall or short;
whether he be handsome or ugly; whether he be quick in his motions or
slow; whether he be clever or stupid; whether he have a good memory,
or whether he be forgetful; whether he be courteous, fond of doing
kindnesses, modest, patient, or the contrary. And altogether all these
things which are considered to be qualities conferred by nature on
men's minds or bodies, must be taken into consideration when defining
nature. For those qualities which are acquired by industry relate to a
man's condition, concerning which we must speak hereafter.

XXV. With reference to a man's way of life it is proper to consider
among what men, and in what manner, and according to whose direction
he has been brought up; what teachers of the liberal sciences he has
had; what admonitors to encourage him to a proper course of life;
with what friends he is intimate; in what business, or employment, or
gainful pursuit he is occupied; in what manner he manages his estate,
and what are his domestic habits. With reference to his fortune we
inquire whether he is a slave or a free man; whether he is wealthy or
poor; whether he is a private individual or a man in office; if he be
in office, whether he has become so properly or improperly; whether he
is prosperous, illustrious, or the contrary; what sort of children he
has. And if we are inquiring about one who is no longer alive, then we
must consider also by what death he died.

But when we speak of a man's habitual condition, we mean his constant
and absolute completeness of mind or body, in some particular
point--as for instance, his perception of virtue, or of some art,
or else some science or other. And we include also some personal
advantages not given to him by nature, but procured by study and
industry. By affection, we mean a sudden alteration of mind or body,
arising from some particular cause, as joy, desire, fear, annoyance,
illness, weakness and other things which are found under the same
class. But study is the assiduous and earnest application of the
mind, applied to some particular object with great good-will, as to
philosophy, poetry, geometry, or literature. By counsel, we mean a
carefully considered resolution to do or not to do something. But
actions, and accidents, and speeches will be considered with reference
to three different times; what a man has done, what has happened to
him, or what he has said; or what he is doing, or what is happening to
him, or what he is saying; or what he is going to do, what is about to
happen to him, or what speech he is about to deliver. And all these
things appear to be attributable to persons.

XXVI. But of the considerations which belong to things, some are
connected with the thing itself which is the subject of discussion;
some are considered in the performance of the thing; some are united
with the thing itself; some follow in the accomplishment of the thing.
Those things are connected with the thing itself which appear always
to be attached to the thing and which cannot be separated from it.
The first of such things is a brief exposition of the whole business,
which contains the sum of the entire matter, in this way--"The slaying
of a parent;" "the betrayal of a country." Then comes the cause of
this general fact; and we inquire by what means, and in what manner,
and with what view such and such a thing has been done. After that we
inquire what was done before this action under consideration was done,
and all the steps which preceded this action. After that, what was
done in the very execution of this action. And last of all, what has
been done since.

But with reference to the performance of an action, which was the
second topic of those which were attributed to things, the place, and
the time, and the manner, and the opportunity, and the facilities will
be inquired into. The place is taken into consideration in which the
thing was done; with reference to the opportunity which the doer
seems to have had of executing the business; and that opportunity is
measured by the importance of the action, by the interval which has
elapsed, by the distance, by the nearness, by the solitude of the
place, or by the frequented character of it, by the nature of the
spot itself and by the neighbourhood of the whole region. And it is
estimated also with reference to these characteristics, whether the
place be sacred or not, public or private, whether it belongs or
has belonged to some one else, or to the man whose conduct is under
consideration.

But the time is, that, I mean, which we are speaking of at the present
moment, (for it is difficult to define it in a general view of it
with any exactness,) a certain portion of eternity with some fixed
limitation of annual or monthly, or daily or nightly space. In
reference to this we take into consideration the things which are
passed, and those things which, by reason of the time which has
elapsed since, have become so obsolete as to be considered incredible,
and to be already classed among the number of fables, and those things
also which, having been performed a long time ago and at a time remote
from our recollection, still affect us with a belief that they have
been handed down truly, because certain memorials of those facts are
extant in written documents, and those things which have been done
lately, so that most people are able to be acquainted with them. And
also those things which exist at the present moment, and which are
actually taking place now, and which are the consequences of former
actions. And with reference to those things it is open to us to
consider which will happen sooner, and which later. And also generally
in considering questions of time, the distance or proximity of the
time is to be taken into account: for it is often proper to measure
the business done with the time occupied in doing it, and to consider
whether a business of such and such magnitude, or whether such and
such a multitude of things, can be performed in that time. And we
should take into consideration the time of year, and of the month, and
of the day, and of the night, and the watches, and the hours, and each
separate portion of any one of these times.

XXVII. An occasion is a portion of time having in it a suitable
opportunity for doing or avoiding to do some particular thing.
Wherefore there is this difference between it and time. For, as to
genus, indeed, they are both understood to be identical; but in time
some space is expressed in some manner or other, which is regarded
with reference to years, or to a year, or to some portion of a year,
but in an occasion, besides the space of time implied in the word,
there is indicated an especial opportunity of doing something. As
therefore the two are identical in genus it is some portion and
species as it were, in which the one differs, as we have said, from
the other.

Now occasion is distributed into three classes, public, common and
singular. That is a public occasion, which the whole city avails
itself of for some particular cause, as games, a day of festival, or
war. That is a common occasion which happens to all men at nearly the
same time, as the harvest, the vintage, summer, or winter. That is a
singular occasion, which, on account of some special cause, happens
at times to some private individuals, as for instance, a wedding, a
sacrifice, a funeral, a feast, sleep.

But the manner, also, is inquired into, in what manner, how, and with
what design the action was done? Its parts are, the doer knowing what
he was about, and not knowing. But the degree of his knowledge is
measured by these circumstances whether the doer did his action
secretly, openly, under compulsion or through persuasion. The fact
of the absence of knowledge is brought forward as an excuse, and its
parts are actual ignorance, accident, necessity. It is also attributed
to agitation of mind, that is, to annoyance, to passion to love,
and to other feelings of a similar class. Facilities, are those
circumstances owing to which a thing is done more easily, or without
which a thing cannot be done at all.

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