Book: The Orations of Marcus Tullius Cicero, Volume 4

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XVIII. _C. F._ Since you have now discussed the orator himself and his
oration, explain to me now the topic of questions, which you reserved
for the last of the three.

_C. P._ There are, as I said at the beginning, two kinds of questions:
one of which, that which is limited to times and persons, I call the
cause; the other, which is infinite, and bounded neither by times nor
by persons, I call the proposition. But consultation is, as it were, a
part of the cause and controversy. For in the definite there is what
is infinite, and nevertheless everything is referred to it. Wherefore,
let us first speak of the proposition; of which there are two kinds:
one of investigation; the end of this science, as for instance,
whether the senses are to be depended upon; the other of action, which
has reference to doing something: as if any one were to inquire by
what services one ought to cultivate friendship. Again, of the former,
namely, of investigation, there are three kinds: whether a thing is,
or is not; what it is; of what sort it is. Whether it is or not, as
whether right is a thing existing by nature or by custom. But what
a thing is, as whether that is right which is advantageous to the
greater number. And again, what sort of a thing anything is, as
whether to live justly is useful or not.

But of action there are two kinds. One having reference to pursuing
or avoiding anything; as for instance, by what means you can acquire
glory, or how envy may be avoided. The other, which is referred to
some advantage or expediency; as how the republic ought to be managed,
or how a man ought to live in poverty.

But again in investigation, when the question is whether a thing is,
or is not, or has been, or is likely to be. One kind of question is,
whether anything can be effected; as when the question is whether any
one can be perfectly wise. Another question is, how each thing can
be effected; as for instance, by what means virtue is engendered, by
nature, or reason, or use. And of this kind are all those questions
in which, as in obscure subjects or those which turn on natural
philosophy, the causes and principles of things are explained.

XIX. But of that kind in which the question is what that is which is
the subject of discussion, there are two sorts; in the one of which
one must discuss whether one thing is the same as another, or
different from it; as whether pertinacity is the same as perseverance.
But in the other one must give a description and representation as it
were of some genus; as for instance, what sort of a man a miser is, or
what pride is.

But in the third kind, in which the question is what sort of thing
something is, we must speak either of its honesty, or of its utility,
or of its equity. Of its honesty thus. Whether it is honourable to
encounter danger or unpopularity for a friend. But of its expediency
thus. Whether it is expedient to occupy oneself in the conduct of
state affairs. But of its equity thus. Whether it is just to prefer
one's friend to one's relations. And in the same kind of discussion,
in which the question is what sort of thing something is, there arises
another kind of way of arguing. For the question is not simply what
is honourable, what is expedient, what is equitable; but also by
comparison, which is more honourable, which is more expedient, which
is more equitable; and even which is most honourable, which is
most expedient, which is most equitable. Of which kind are those
speculations, which is the most excellent dignity in life. And all
these questions, as I have said before, are parts of investigation.

There remains the question of action. One kind of which is conversant
with the giving of rules which relate to principles of duty; as, for
instance, how one's parents are to be reverenced. And the other to
tranquillising the minds of men and healing them by one's oration; as
in consoling affliction, in repressing ill-temper, in removing fear,
or in allaying covetousness. And this kind is exactly opposed to that
by means of which the speaker proposes to engender those same feelings
of the mind, or to excite them, which it is often requisite to do
in amplifying an oration. And these are nearly all the divisions of
consultation. XX. _C. F._ I understand you. But I should like to hear
from you what in these divisions is the proper system for discovering
and arranging the heads of one's discourse.

_C. P._ What? Do you think it is a different one, and not the same
which has been explained, so that everything may be deduced from the
same topics, both to create belief, and to discover arguments? But the
system of arrangement which has been explained as appropriate to other
kinds of speeches may be transferred to this also.

Since therefore we have now investigated the entire arrangement of the
consultations which we proposed to discuss, the kinds of causes are
now the principal things which remain. And their species is twofold;
one of which aims at affording gratification to the ears, while the
whole object of the other is to obtain, and prove, and effect
the purpose which it has in view. Therefore the former is called
embellishment, and as that may be a kind of extensive operation, and
sufficiently various, we have selected one instance of it which we
adopt for the purpose of praising illustrious men, and of vituperating
the wicked ones. For there is no kind of oration which can be either
more fertile in its topics, or more profitable to states, or in which
the orator is bound to have a more extensive acquaintance with virtues
and vices. But the other class of causes is conversant either with the
foresight of the future, or with discussions on the past. One of which
topics belongs to deliberation and the other to judgment. From which
division three kinds of causes have arisen; one, which, from the
best portion of it, is called that of panegyric; another that of
deliberation; the third that of judicial decisions. Wherefore let us
first, if you please, discuss the first.

_C. F._ Certainly, I do please.

XXI. _C. P._ And the systems of blaming and praising, which have
influence not only on speaking well but also on living honourably, I
will explain briefly; and I will begin from the first principles of
praise and blame. For everything is to be praised which is united with
virtue; and everything which is connected with vice is to be blamed.
Wherefore the end of the one is honour, of the other baseness. But
this kind of discourse is composed of the narration and explanation of
facts, without any argumentations, in a way calculated to handle the
feelings of the mind gently rather than to create belief or to confirm
it in a suitable manner. For they are not doubtful points which are
established in this way; but those which being certain, or at least
admitted as certain, are enlarged upon. Wherefore the rules for
narrating them and enlarging upon them must be sought for from among
those which have been already laid down.

And since in these causes the whole system has reference generally to
the pleasure and entertainment of the hearer, the speakers must employ
in them all the beauties of those separate expressions which have in
them the greatest amount of sweetness. That is, he must often use
newly-coined words, and old-fashioned words, and metaphorical
language; and in the very construction of his periods he must often
compare like with like, and parallel cases with parallel. He must
have recourse to contrasts, to repetitions, to harmoniously-turned
sentences, formed not like verses, but to gratify the sensations of
the ears by as it were a suitable moderation of expression. And those
ornaments are frequently to be employed, which are of a marvellous and
unexpected character, and also those which are full of monsters, and
prodigies, and oracles. And also those things must be mentioned which
appeared to have befallen the man of whom the orator is speaking in
consequence of some divine interposition, or decree of destiny. For
all the expectation and admiration of the hearer, and all unexpected
terminations, contribute to the pleasure which is felt in listening to
the orator.

XXII. But since advantages or evils are of three classes, external,
affecting the mind, or affecting the body, the first are external
which are derived from the genus; and this being praised in brief and
moderate terms, or, if it is discreditable, being passed over; if it
is of a lowly nature, being either passed over, or handled in such a
way as to increase the glory of him whom you are praising. In the next
place, if the case allows it, we must speak of his fortune and his
abilities, and after that of his personal qualifications; among which
it is very natural to praise his beauty, which is one of the greatest
indications of virtue. After that we must come to his actions. The
arrangement is threefold. For we must have regard either to the order
of time, or the most recent actions must be spoken of first, or else
many and various actions of his must be classified according to the
different kinds of virtue which they display. But this topic of
virtues and vices, which is a very extensive one, will now be brought
into a very brief and narrow compass, instead of the many and various
volumes in which philosophers have discussed it.

The power of virtue then is twofold, for virtue is distinguished
either by theory or by practice. For that which is called prudence,
or shrewdness, or (if we must have the most dignified title for it)
wisdom, is all theoretical. But that which is praised as regulating
the passions, and restraining the feelings of the mind, finds its
exercise in practice. And its name is temperance. And prudence when
exerted in a man's own business is called domestic, when displayed in
the affairs of the state is called civil prudence. But temperance in
like manner is divided according to its sphere of action, whether
displayed in a man's own affairs, or in those of the state. And it is
discerned in two ways with respect to advantages, both by not desiring
what it has not got, and by abstaining from what it is in its power to
get. Again, in the case of disadvantages it is also twofold; for that
quality which resists impending evils is called fortitude; that which
bears and endures the evil that is present is termed patience. And
that which embraces these two qualities is called magnanimity. And one
of the forms of this virtue is shown in the use of money. And at
the same time loftiness of spirit in supporting disadvantages, and
especially injuries, and everything of the sort, being grave, sedate,
and never turbulent. But that division of virtue which is exercised
between one being and another is called justice. And that when
exercised towards the gods is called religion; towards one's
relations, affection; towards all the world, goodness; when displayed
in things entrusted to one, good faith; as exhibited in moderation of
punishment, lenity; when it develops itself in goodwill towards an
individual its name is friendship.

XXIII. And all these virtues are visible in practice. But there are
others, which are as it were the handmaidens and companions of wisdom;
one of which distinguishes between and decides what arguments in a
discussion are true or false, and what follows from what premises. And
this virtue is wholly placed in the system and theory of arguing; but
the other virtue belongs to the orator. For eloquence is nothing but
wisdom speaking with great copiousness; and while derived from the
same source as that which is displayed in disputing, is more rich, and
of wider application, better suited to excite the minds of men and to
work on the feelings of the common people. But the guardian of all
the virtues, which avoids all conspicuousness, and yet attains the
greatest eminence of praise, is modesty. And these are for the most
part certain habits of mind, so affected and disposed as to be each of
them distinguished from one another by some peculiar kind of virtue;
and according as everything is done by one of them, in the same
proportion must it be honourable and in the highest degree
praiseworthy. But there are other habits also of a well-instructed
mind which has been cultivated beforehand as it were, and prepared for
virtue by virtuous pursuits and accomplishments: as in a man's private
affairs, the studies of literature, as of tunes and sounds, of
measurement, of the stars, of horses, of hunting, of arms. In the
affairs of the commonwealth his eager pursuit of some particular kind
of virtue, which he selects as his especial object of devotion, in
discharging his duty to the gods, or in showing careful and remarkable
affection to his relations, his friends, or those connected with
family ties of hospitality. And these then are the different kinds of
virtue. But those of vice are their exact contraries.

But these also must be examined carefully, so that those vices may not
deceive us which appear to imitate virtue. For cunning tries to assume
the character of prudence, and moroseness, in despising pleasures,
wishes to be taken for temperance; and pride, which puffs a man up,
and which affects to despise legitimate honours, seeks to vaunt itself
as magnanimity; prodigality calls itself liberality, audacity imitates
courage, hardhearted sternness imitates patience, bitterness justice,
superstition religion, weakness of mind lenity, timidity modesty,
captiousness and carping at words wishes to pass for acuteness in
arguing, and an empty fluency of language for this oratorical vigour
at which we are aiming. And those, too, appear akin to virtuous
pursuits, which run to excess in the same class.

Wherefore all the force of praise or blame must be derived from these
divisions of virtues and vices. But in the whole context, as it were,
of the oration, these points must above all others be made clear,--how
each person spoken of has been born, how he has been educated, how
he has been trained, and what are his habits; and if any great or
surprising thing has happened to any one, especially if anything which
has happened should appear to have befallen him by the interposition
of the gods; and also whatever the person in question has thought, or
said, or done, must be adapted to the different kinds of virtue which
have been enumerated, and from the same topics we must inquire into
the causes of things, and the events, and the consequences. Nor ought
the death of those men, whose life is praised, to be passed over in
silence; provided only, there be anything noticeable either in the
manner of their death, or in the consequences which have resulted from
their death.

XXIV. _C. F._ I have attended to what you say, and I have learnt
briefly, not only how to praise another, but also how to endeavour to
deserve to be praised myself. Let us, then, consider in the next
place what system and what rules we are to observe in delivering our
sentiments.

_C. P._ In deliberation, then, the end aimed at is utility, to which
everything is referred in giving counsel, and in delivering our
sentiments, so that the first thing which requires to be noticed by
any one who is advising or dissuading from such and such a course of
action is what is possible to be done, or what is impossible; or what
is necessary to be done, or what is unnecessary. For if a thing be
impossible there is no use in deliberating about it, however desirable
it may be; and if a thing be necessary, (when I say necessary, I mean
such that without it we cannot be safe or free), then that must
be preferred to everything else which is either honourable or
advantageous in public affairs. But when the question is, What can be
done? we must also consider how easily it can be done: for the things
which are very difficult are often to be considered in the same
light as if they were totally impossible. And when we are discussing
necessity, although there may be something which is not absolutely
necessary, still we must consider of how much importance it is. For
that which is of very great importance indeed, is often considered
necessary. Therefore, as this kind of cause consists of persuasion and
dissuasion, the speaker who is trying to persuade, has a simple course
before him; if a thing is both advantageous and possible, let it be
done. The speaker who is trying to dissuade his hearers from some
course of action, has a twofold division of his labour. One, if it is
not useful it must not be done; the other, if it is impossible it must
not be undertaken. And so, the speaker who is trying to persuade must
establish both these points; the one whose object it is to dissuade,
may be content with invalidating either.

Since, then, all deliberation turns on these two points, let us first
speak of utility, which is conversant about the distinction between
advantages and disadvantages. But of advantages, some are necessarily
such; as life, chastity, liberty, or as children, wives, relations,
parents; and some are not necessarily such; and of these last, some
are to be sought for their own sakes, as those which are classed among
the duties or virtues, and others are to be desired because they
produce some advantage, as riches and influence. But of those
advantages which are sought for their own sake, some are sought for
their honourableness, some for their convenience, which is inherent
in them: those are sought for their honourableness which proceed from
those virtues which have been mentioned a little while ago, which are
intrinsically praiseworthy on their own account; but those are sought
on account of some inherent advantage which are desirable as to goods
of fortune or of the body: some of which are to a certain extent
combined with honourableness, as honour, and glory; some have no
connexion with that, as strength, beauty, health, nobleness, riches,
troops of dependents. There is also a certain sort of matter, as
it were, which is subordinate to what is honourable, which is most
particularly visible in friendship. But friendships are seen in
affection and in love. For regard for the gods, and for our parents,
and for our country, and for those men who are eminent for wisdom or
power, is usually referred to affection; but wives, and children,
and brothers, and others whom habit and intimacy has united with us,
although they are bound to us by affection, yet the principal tie
is love. As, then, you know now what is good in these things, it is
easily to be understood what are the contrary qualities.

XXV. But if we were able always to preserve what is best, we should
not have much need of deliberation, since that is usually very
evident. But because it often happens on account of some peculiarity
in the times, which has great weight, that expediency is at variance
with what is honourable, and since the comparison of the two
principles gives rise to deliberation, lest we should either pass over
what is seasonable, on account of some considerations of dignity, or
what is honourable on account of some idea of expediency, we may give
examples to guide us in explaining this difficulty. And since an
oration must be adapted not only to truth, but also to the opinions of
the hearers, let us first consider this, that there are two kinds of
men: one of them unlettered and rustic, always preferring what is
expedient to what is honourable; the other, accomplished and polite,
preferring dignity to everything. Therefore, the one class sets its
heart upon, praise, honour, glory, good faith, justice, and every
virtue; but the other regards only gain, emolument, and profit. And
even pleasure, which is above all things hostile to virtue, and which
adulterates the nature of what is good by a treacherous imitation of
it, which all men of grosser ideas eagerly follow, and which prefers
that spurious copy, not only to what is honourable, but even to what
is necessary, must often be praised in a speech aiming at persuasion,
when you are giving counsel to men of that sort.

XXVI. This also must be considered, how much greater eagerness men
display in fleeing from what is disadvantageous, than in seeking what
is advantageous; for they are in the same manner not so zealous in
seeking what is honourable, as in avoiding what is base. For who
ever seeks for honour, or glory, or praise, or any kind of credit as
earnestly as he flees from ignominy, infamy, contumely, and disgrace?
For these things are attended with great pain. There is a class of
men born for honour, not corrupted by evil training and perverted
opinions--on which account, when exhorting or persuading, we must keep
in view the object of teaching them by what means we may be able to
arrive at what is good, and to avoid what is evil. But before men who
have been properly brought up we shall dwell chiefly on praise and
honourableness, and speak chiefly of those kinds of virtues which are
concerned in maintaining and increasing the general advantage of men.
But if we are speaking before uneducated and ignorant men, then we
shall set before them profits, emoluments, pleasures, and the means
of escaping pain; we shall also introduce the mention of insult and
ignominy; for no one is such a clown, as not (even though honour
itself may have no influence on him) to be greatly moved by insult and
disgrace.

Wherefore we must find out from what has been already said, what has
reference to utility; but as to what is possible to be done or not,
with reference to which people usually inquire also how easily a thing
can be done, and how far it is desirable that it should be done, we
must consider chiefly with reference to those causes which produce
each separate result. For there are some causes which of themselves
produce results, and some which only contribute to the production of a
result. Therefore, the first are called efficient causes; and the
last are classed as such, that without them a thing cannot be brought
about. Again, of efficient causes, some are complete and perfect in
themselves; some are accessory to, and, as it were, partners in the
production of the result in question. And of this kind the effect is
very much diversified, being sometimes greater or less; so that which
is the most efficacious is often called the only cause, though it is
in reality but the main one. There are also other causes which, either
on account of their origin or on account of their result, are called
efficient causes. But when the question is, what is best to be done,
then it is either utility or the hope of doing it which urges men's
minds to agree with the speaker. And since we have now said enough
about utility, let us speak of the means of effecting it.

XXVII. And on this point of the subject we must consider with whom,
and against whom, and at what time, and in what place we are to do
such and such a thing, also what means of arms, money, allies, or
those other things which relate to the doing of any particular thing
we have it in our power to employ. Nor must we consider only
those means which we have, but those circumstances also which
are unfavourable to us. And if in the comparison the advantages
preponderate, then we must persuade our hearers, not only that what we
are advising can be effected, but we must also take care that it shall
appear easy, manageable, and agreeable. But if we are dissuading from
any particular course, then we must either disparage the utility of
it, or we must make the most of the difficulties of doing it, not
having recourse to other rules, but to the same topics as are
used when trying to persuade our hearers to anything. And whether
persuading or dissuading, the speaker must have a store of precedents,
either modern, which will be the best known, or ancient, which will
perhaps have the most weight. And in this kind of discourse he must
consider how he may be able often to make what is useful or necessary
appear superior to what is honourable, or _vice versa_. But sentiments
of this kind will have great weight in influencing men's minds, (if it
is desirable to make an impression on them,) which relate either to
the gratification of people's desires, or to the glutting of hatred,
or to the avenging of injury. But if the object is to repress the
feelings of the hearers, then they must be reminded of the uncertainty
of fortune, of the doubtfulness of future events, and of the risk
there may be of retaining their existing fortune, if it is good; and
on the other hand, of the danger of its lasting if it is bad. And
these are topics for a peroration. But in expressing one's opinions,
the opening ought to be short, for the orator does not come forth as a
suppliant, as if he were speaking before a judge, but as an exhorter
and adviser. Wherefore, he ought to settle beforehand with what
intention he is going to speak, what his object is, what the subject
of his discourse is to be, and he ought to exhort his hearers to
listen to him while he detains them but a short time. And the whole of
his oration ought to be simple, and dignified, and embellished rather
by its sentiments than by its expressions.

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