Book: Omaha Dwellings, Furniture and Implements
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James Owen Dorsey, >> Omaha Dwellings, Furniture and Implements
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OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE, AND IMPLEMENTS
BY
JAMES OWEN DORSEY
CONTENTS
Page
Introductory note 269
Dwellings 269
Earth lodges 269
Lodges of bark or mats 271
Skin lodges or tents 271
Furniture and implements 275
Fireplaces 275
Beds and bedding 275
Cradles 275
Children's swings 276
Brooms 276
Pottery 276
Mortars and pestles 276
Spoons, ladles, and drinking vessels 277
Water vessels 277
Other vessels 278
Hoes and axes 278
Knives 278
Implements connected with fire 279
Smoking paraphernalia 279
Equipage for horses 280
Traveling gear 281
Boats 281
Musical instruments 281
Weapons 283
Clubs 283
Tomahawks 284
Spears 284
Bows 285
Arrows 286
Quivers 287
Shields and armor 287
Firearms 288
ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Fig. 306. Yellow Smoke's earth lodge 270
307. Ground plan of Osage lodge 271
308. Omaha tent 272
309. Exterior parts of an Omaha tent 273
310. [P]ejequde's tent 274
311. Omaha cradle--plan 276
312. Omaha cradle--side view 276
313. Omaha mortar 277
314. Omaha pestle 277
315. Omaha calumet 279
316. Omaha pipe used on ordinary occasions 280
317. Skin drum 282
318. Box drum 282
319. Omaha large flute 283
320. Omaha club (ja^{n}-[p]a[c]na) 283
321. Omaha club (ja^{n}-[p]a[c]na) 284
322. Omaha club (weaq[|c]ade) 284
323. Omaha bow (za^{n}zi-mand[)e]) 285
324. Omaha bow ([t]a[k]a^{n}-mand[)e]) 285
325. Omaha hunting arrow 286
326. Omaha war arrow 286
327. Omaha style of hide-[t]ace 286
OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE, AND IMPLEMENTS
BY JAMES OWEN DORSEY
INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
The accompanying paper is one of the results of personal investigations
among the Omaha of Nebraska and cognate tribes of Indians, beginning in
1878 and continued from time to time during late years.
While the paper treats of the Omaha tribe, much that is said is
applicable to the Ponka, as the two tribes have long had similar
environments and a common dialect, for, until 1877, their habitats were
almost contiguous, and since 1880 about one-third of the Ponka tribe has
been dwelling on its former reservation near the town of Niobrara,
Nebraska.
Acknowledgments are due Dr. O. T. Mason for many valuable suggestions
early in the progress of the work.
DWELLINGS.
The primitive domiciles of the Omaha were chiefly (1) lodges of earth
or, more rarely, of bark or mats, and (2) skin lodges or tents. It may
be observed that there were no sacred rites connected with the earth
lodge-building or tent-making among the Omaha and Ponka.
Earth Lodges.
When earth lodges were built, the people did not make them in a tribal
circle, each man erecting his lodge where he wished; yet kindred
commonly built near one another.
The earth lodges were made by the women, and were intended principally
for summer use, when the people were not migrating or going on the hunt.
Those built by the Omaha and Ponka were constructed in the following
manner: The roof was supported by two series of vertical posts, forked
at the top for the reception of the transverse connecting pieces of each
series. The number in each series varied according to the size of the
lodge; for a small lodge only four posts were erected in the inner
series, for an ordinary lodge eight were required, and ten generally
constituted the maximum. When Mr. Say[1] visited the Kansa Indians, he
occupied a lodge in which twelve of these posts placed in a circle
formed the outer series, and eight longer ones constituted the inner
series, also describing a circle. The wall was formed by setting upright
slabs of wood back of the outer posts all around the circumference of
the lodge. These slabs were not over 6 feet in height, and their tops
met the cross timbers on which the willow posts rested. Stocks of hard
willow about 2 inches in diameter rested with their butts on the tops of
the upright slabs and extended on the cross timbers nearly to the
summit. These poles were very numerous, touching one another and
extending all around in a radiating manner, supporting the roof like
rafters. The rafters were covered with grass about a foot thick; and
over the whole lodge, including the sides or slabs, earth was piled from
a foot to 2 feet in depth. Such a covering lasted generally about twenty
years. A hole in the middle served as an exit for the smoke.
[Footnote 1: James' account of Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains
in 1819-'20.]
[Illustration: Fig. 306.--Yellow Smoke's earth lodge.]
In addition to the lodge proper there was a covered way about 10 feet
long and 5 feet wide, the entrance to which had a covering of tanned or
dried buffalo hides. This covering consisted of two hides hanging side
by side, with the inner borders slightly overlapping. They were fastened
to the passageway at the top and at the outer sides, but were loose at
the bottom where they overlapped. This part was raised by a person
entering the lodge. A similar covering was placed at the interior end of
the passageway.
Subsequently to 1855, the Omaha dwelt in three villages composed of
earth lodges, as follows: (1) Biku[']de, a village near the agency; (2)
Windja[']ge, Standing Hawk's village, near the Presbyterian mission
house; and (3) Ja^{n}[|c]a[']te ("Wood Eaters,") named after an insect
found under the bark of trees Sanssouci's village, near the town of
Decatur, Nebraska.
Earth lodges were generally used for large gatherings, such as feasts,
councils, or dances. Occasionally there was a depression in the center
of the lodge which was used as a fireplace; but it was not over 6 inches
deep. Each earth lodge had a ladder, made by cutting a series of deep
notches along one side of a log. On a bluff near the Omaha agency I
found the remains of several ancient earth lodges, with entrances on the
southern sides. Two of these were 75 feet and one was 100 feet in
diameter. In the center of the largest there was a hollow about 3 feet
deep and nearly 4 feet below the surface outside the lodge.
Lodges of Bark or Mats.
The Omaha sometimes make bark lodges for summer occupancy, as did the
Iowa and Sak. [T]iu['][|c]ipu jin[']ga, or low lodges covered with
mats, were used by the Omaha in former days. Such lodges are still
common among the Winnebago, the Osage, and other tribes. The ground plan
of such a lodge forms an ellipse. The height is hardly over 7 feet from
the ground. The tent poles are arranged thus: Each pole has one end
planted in the ground, the other end being bent down and fastened to the
pole immediately opposite; a number of poles thus arranged in pairs
formed both wall posts and rafters.
[Illustration: Fig. 307.--Ground plan of Osage lodge.]
Generally there was one fireplace and one smokehole in such a lodge; but
when I visited the Osage in 1883, I entered a low lodge with two
fireplaces, each equidistant from its end of the lodge and the entrance,
each fireplace having its smokehole.
Skin Lodges or Tents.
The tent was used when the people were migrating, and also when they
were traveling in search of the buffalo. It was also the favorite abode
of a household during the winter season, as the earth lodge was
generally erected in an exposed situation, selected on account of
comfort in the summer. The tent could be pitched in the timber or brush,
or down in wooded ravines, where the cold winds never had full sweep.
Hence, many Indians abandoned their houses in winter and went into their
tents, even when they were of canvas.
[Illustration: Fig. 308.--Omaha tent (from a photograph by
W. H. Jackson).]
The tent was commonly made of ten or a dozen dressed or tanned buffalo
skins. It was in the shape of a sugar loaf, and was from 10 to 12 feet
high, 10 or 15 feet in diameter at the bottom, and about a foot and a
half in diameter at the top, which served as a smokehole
([t]ihu[k]a^{n}). Besides the interior tent poles ([t]ici--3,
figure 309) and the tent skin ([t]iha--1), the tent had the
[t]i[|c]uma^{n}ha^{n}, or the place where the skins were fastened
together above the entrance (4). The [t]i[|c]uma^{n}ha^{n} was fastened
with the [t]ihu[|c]ubaxa^{n}(5), which consisted of sticks or pieces of
hide thrust crosswise through the holes in the tent skins. The bottom of
the tent was secured to the ground by pins ([t]ihu[|c]ugada^{n}--6)
driven through holes ([t]ihugaq[|c]uge) in the bottom of the skins, made
when the latter were tanned and before they had become hard. The
entrance ([t]ijebe) was generally opposite the quarter from which the
wind was blowing. A door flap ([t]ijebeg[|c]a^{n}--7) hung over the
entrance; it was made of skin with the hair outside, so as to turn
water, and was held taut by a stick fastened to it transversely. The
bottom of the door flap was loose, but the top was fastened to the tent.
[Illustration: Fig. 309--Exterior parts of an Omaha tent.]
The smokehole was formed by the two [t]ihugab[|c]i^{n}[|c]a(9), or
triangular ends of tent skins, immediately above the entrance and
[t]icuma^{n}ha^{n}. When there was no wind both of the
[t]ihugab[|c]i^{n}[|c]a were kept open by means of the
[t]ihu[|c]ubaji^{n}(8) or exterior tent poles, which were thrust
through the ujiha, or small sacks, in the corners of the
[t]ihugab[|c]i^{n}[|c]a. When the wind blew one of the
[t]ihu[|c]ubaji^{n} was raised to the windward and the other was
lowered, pulling its skin close to the tent and leaving an opening for
the escape of the smoke; but if the wind came directly against the
entrance both the flaps were raised, closing the smokehole to prevent
the wind from blowing down it. When the wind blew the people used
nandi[|c]agaspe to keep the bottom of each tent skin in place. These
consisted of twisted grass, sticks, stones, or other heavy objects.
Figure 310 represents the tent of [P]ejequde, an Omaha. The banners or
standards, which were carried by the leaders of a war party or a party
going on a dancing tour, are depicted with their decorations of strips
of red and blue Indian cloth. Sometimes these standards were ornamented
with feathers instead of with cloth. Each standard could be used in four
war expeditions.
No totem posts were in use among the Omaha. The tent of the principal
man of each gens was decorated on the outside with his gentile badge,
which was painted on each side of the entrance as well as on the back of
the tent.[1] The furniture of the sacred tents resembled that of the
ordinary ones.
Before the introduction of canvas tents by the whites no needles or
thread were used by the Siouan tribes. The women used sinew of the deer
or buffalo instead of thread, and for needles they had awls made of elk
horn.
[Illustration: Fig. 310.--[P]ejequde's tent.]
Since there were no outbuildings, public granaries, or other structures
of this description, each household stored away its own grain and other
provisions. There were no special tribal or communal dwellings; but
sometimes two or more households occupied a single earth lodge. When a
council was held, it took place in the earth lodge of one of the head
chiefs, or else two or three common tents were united, making one large
one.[2] There were no public baths, as the Missouri river was near, and
they could resort to it whenever they desired. Dance houses were
improvised either of earth lodges or skin tents.
Sweat-lodges were in the form of low tents ([t]iu[|c]ipu).[3] Stones
were not boiled for the sweat-lodge, but were put into the fire to be
heated. They were removed from the fire by means of sticks called
i^{n}[,][)e]basi[|c]a^{n}, and then water from the kettle was poured on
them, creating steam. Cedar fronds were dropped on the stones, causing a
perfume to arise.
[Footnote 1: Third Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnology for 1882-'83, p. 230; also
"A Study of Siouan Cults," in Eleventh Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnology,
1889-'90, p. 351.]
[Footnote 2: Third Ann. Rep., op. cit., p. 294.]
[Footnote 3: Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. vi, 1890,
pp. 152, 169, and 234.]
FURNITURE AND IMPLEMENTS.
Fireplaces.
Within the tent, in the center, was the fireplace (une[|c][)e]), formed
by excavating a small hollow. Beside this was erected a forked post
(isag[|c][)e]), on which was hung the apparatus for suspending a kettle
over the fire. This apparatus was called [|c]exe u[|c]ugacke by the
Ponka, literally, "that by means of which the kettle is hung." The Omaha
have two names for it, uha^{n} u[|c]ugacke, and u[|c]ugackeg[|c]e, the
last syllable of the latter name referring to the attitude of the post.
Around the fireplace was a circular space for the feet of the people as
they sat about the fire. The couches of the occupants of the tent were
arranged outside of and all around this circular space.
Beds and Bedding.
A couch was formed by laying down two or three winter hides dried with
the hair on. These hides were placed around the fireplace at a safe
distance. In the earth lodges, according to Joseph La Fleche, the Omaha
used sahi, or grass mats, for seats, as is the present custom of the
Winnebago; but at night they reclined on dressed hides with thick hair
on them, and covered themselves with similar hides.
For pillows they used ibehi^{n} or i^{n}behi^{n}. When the vegetation
was about 3 inches high in the spring, the Indians killed deer and
pulled off the hair in order to remove the thin skin or tissue next to
it. This latter, when thoroughly dried, is smooth and white, resembling
parchment. It was used for pillows and moccasin-strings. When used for
pillows the case was filled with goose feathers or the hair of the deer
until it was about 2 feet long and 9 inches high. During the day, and
whenever there was occasion, they were used as seats; but if none could
be had, the people sat on winter robes or hides forming the couches.[1]
Back of the couches and next to the interior tent-poles were placed the
baggage, sacks of corn, and other household properties.
The upright tent is one form of the Dakota "wake[']ya," the plural of
which, "wake[']yapi," undoubtedly gave rise to the familiar "wick[']iup"
of the plains, and also to "wae-ka[']-yo" of Morgan.[2]
Cradles.
A board of convenient size, usually about a yard long and a foot wide,
was selected to form a cradle or u[|c]uhe. No pillow was needed. A
soft skin ([p]aq[|c]uqaha [|c]a^{n}) covered with plenty of thick hair
was laid on the board, and on it was placed the infant.
[Footnote 1: Hammocks and bedsteads were unknown prior to their
introduction by the traders and other white people.]
[Footnote 2: Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. iv., 1881,
p. 114.]
[Illustration: Fig. 311.--Omaha cradle--plan.]
In the annexed figures,
a is the [)i]ndua[|c]isi^{n}ka^{n}he, the
object painted on the board at the end where the infant's head is laid;
b is the [)i]ndei[|c]id[)i]ndi^{n} ("that which is drawn taut over
the face"), the two strings of beads and sinew or thread (sometimes made of
red calico alone), which keep in place the fan, etc.; the fan
([)i]ndeagani), which is suspended from a bow of wood, (
c) is about
6 inches square, and is now made of interwoven sinew on which beads have
been strung. Occasionally thimbles and other bright objects dangle from
the bottom of the fan. The i[|c]a[|c]istage (
d) is the band by which
the infant is fastened to the cradle.
[Illustration: Fig. 312.--Omaha cradle--side view.]
Children's Swings.
For swings the ends of two withes of buffalo hide were secured to four
trees or posts which formed the corners of a parallelogram. A blanket
was thrown across the withes and folded over on them. The infant was
laid on top of the fold and swung from side to side without falling.
Brooms.
Brooms were of two kinds. One form was made of sticks tied together, and
was used for sweeping the ground outside of the tent or earth lodge, and
the interior of the earth lodge, except the fireplace. The other kind
was made of goose or turkey feathers, and was used for sweeping the
fireplace of an earth lodge.
Pottery.
Pottery has not been made by the Omaha for more than fifty years. The
art of making it has been forgotten by the tribe.
Mortar and Pestles.
A mortar was made by burning a large hole in a round knot or piece of
wood about 7 inches in diameter. The lower end was sharpened to a
point, which was thrust into the ground when needed for use. After
putting corn in a mortar of this description, the woman grasped the
wooden pestle in the middle, with the larger end upward; the smaller
end, which was about an inch in diameter, was put into the mortar. The
operation of pounding corn among the Omaha was called "he." The mortar
(uhe) and pestle (wehe) were both made commonly of elm, although
sometimes they were fashioned of white oak. Mortars were of various
sizes, some of them measuring 2 feet in diameter. Pestles were always of
hard and heavy wood, and fully 3 feet long, taperring from 4 inches to
an inch in diameter.
[Illustration: Fig. 314.--Omaha pestle.]
[Illustration: Fig. 313.--Omaha mortar.]
Spoons, Ladles and Drinking Vessels.
Spoons were made of horn, wood, or pottery. The black spoons made of
buffalo horn ([t]ehe sab[)e]), are not used by such Omaha as belong to
the Buffalo gentes (Inkesab[)e], [|C]atada, [T]esinde, etc.) which may
not touch a buffalo head. Other horn spoons of light color are made of
cow horn. These are of modern origin. Wooden spoons (ja^{n}[t]ehe) were
made of knobs or knots of trees. Spoons made of buffalo horn are found
among the Omaha and Ponka, but the Osage, Kansa, and Kwapa use clam
shells ([t]ihaba, in [|C]egiha; tcuehaba, tcuehuba, in Kansa), so the
Kansa call a small spoon, tcuehaba jinga. Spoons of buffalo horn had
their handles variously ornamented by notches and other rude carving,
often terminating in the head of a bird, the neck or handle of each
being elevated at an angle of 50 deg. or 60 deg. with the bowl, which, was about
3 inches in width by about 5 in length. As the handle of such a spoon
usually terminates in a head or hook, it was impossible for it to slip
into the bowl when the hook rested on the outside of the rim of the
bowl.
Food was served in bowls of a very wide and simple form and of various
sizes, generally carved out of large knots of wood. These served as
drinking cups (ni[']i[|c]ata^{n}), but now cups of tin or earthenware
are used for that purpose.
Water Vessels
When pottery was made, they used bowls and kettles. Some used wooden
bowls of different sizes, the largest being about 2 feet in diameter.
When they went on the hunt, they used the inijeha (or sack made of the
muscular coating of the buffalo paunch, by filling with, grass to make
it stand out and keep its shape until dried). When the inijeha was
filled with water the mouth was tied, and it was kept covered and in the
shade that it might remain cool. After being used for a few days it
became strong smelling, and was thrown away, another taking its place.
Some preferred the "[t]en[)a]n[']de uq[|c]a[']ha [|c]a^{n}" or
pericardium(?) of the buffalo, which is like sinew. This does not smell
unpleasant, even when used for seven or ten days. But at the expiration
of that time it is unfit for further service.
Jugs have been introduced by the traders.
Other Vessels.
Provision sacks or parfleche cases were made of dried buffalo hide. When
used for carrying the dried meat, they were called weabasta. After two
or three years' use they became soft and were fit only for making
moccasin soles. These sacks had the hair taken off, and were sometimes
made in trunk fashion.
Fruit baskets were of three kinds. The Ponka made them of the bark of a
tree, called tawa[,]a^{n}he, which is found on the old Ponka reservation
in Dakota. Northern Indians make boats of this bark. The Omaha do not
find the tree on their land, so they make the fruit baskets of other
kinds of bark. The three kinds of baskets are as follows: Na^{n}[']pa
u[|c]is[)e], used for chokecherries; ag[|c]an[']kamange u[|c]is[)e],
used for raspberries; and bact u[|c]is[)e], used for strawberries. When
the Ponka wished to make the baskets, they stripped off the bark in
horizontal sections, not pulling upward or downward.
In modern times the Omaha have learned to make sacks of thread of
different colors drawn from black, red, blue, and white blankets.
Different figures are woven. Each sack is about a foot deep, 16 inches
from the mouth to the opposite side, and from 2 to 2-1/2 feet long. The
opening is on one of the long sides, and when the articles are put in a
gathering string is drawn and tied.
Hoes and Axes.
For hoes, the Omaha used the shoulder blades of the buffalo. Axes and
hatchets are now made of iron, hence, the Omaha name, ma^{n}[']ze-pe,
sharp iron. But the Kansa have the ancient name, ma^{n}[']hi-spe,
answering to the Dakota, wa^{n}hi^{n}[']-kpe, sharp flint. The hatchet
is distinguished from the ax by adding "jinga," small. Some of the stone
axes and hatchets have been found on the Omaha reservation, but they
could hardly have been used for cutting. It is not known what tools were
used for felling trees.
Knives.
Knives were made of stone. A prominent butte, near the old Ponka agency,
Nebraska, is known as "Mahi^{n}-[t]u," signifying blue knife, from the
character of the stone with which its surface is covered. It is several
miles from the mouth of Ponka creek and nearly opposite the month of
Choteau creek, South Dakota.
Implements Connected with Fire.
In former ages, the [|C]egiha made fire by rubbing or turning a stick
round and round between the hands. On the present Omaha reservation, and
in that region, the Omaha use elm roots for that purpose. In the country
called [P]izabahehe, near the source of Elkhorn river, there is a grass
known as "duaduahi," which has about a hundred fine shoots from each
root, which is half the size of the head. The stalk was used for hand
drills and fire sticks. One stalk was cut almost flat, and the man puts
his feet on the ends to steady them. Then, holding the other stick in
his hands, with one end touching the stalk on the ground, he turned it
round and round till the friction produced fire. Sometimes a small
quantity of dry sand was placed on the flat stick. The same flat stick
answered for several occasions. When the cavity made by turning the hand
drill became too large, the point of contact was shifted to another part
of the flat stick, and so on until the whole of that stick was used,
when it was thrown away and another was obtained. Duaduahi, according to
Mr. Francis La Flesche, may be found in Judiciary square, Washington,
District of Columbia. After the coming of the white man, but before the
introduction of friction matches, which are now used by the whole tribe,
the Omaha used flints and tinder for making fire.
Spits for roasting, etc., naqpe, or webasna^{n}, were made of any kind
of wood.
For tongs they used the [p]edi[|c]a[|c]isande ("fire-holder"), made by
slitting one end of a stick. This implement was also called, ja^{n}
jinga nini ibista ("the stick that presses the fire against the
tobacco"), because it was used for lighting pipes.