Book: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 4

V >> Various >> Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 4




See Gough's edition of Camden's _Britannia_; Stephen Glover, _History of
the County of Derby_ (Derby, 1829); W. Bemrose, _Guide to Buxton_ (London,
1869).

BUXTORF, or BUXTORFF, JOHANNES (1564-1629), German Hebrew and Rabbinic
scholar, was born at Kamen in Westphalia on the 25th of December 1564. The
original form of the name was Bockstrop, or Boxtrop, from which was derived
the family crest, which bore the figure of a goat (Ger. _Bock_, he-goat).
After the death of his father, who was minister of Kamen, Buxtorf studied
at Marburg and the newly-founded university of Herborn, at the latter of
which C. Olevian (1536-1587) and J.P. Piscator (1546-1625) had been
appointed professors of theology. At a later date Piscator received the
assistance of Buxtorf in the preparation of his Latin translation of the
Old Testament, published at Herborn in 1602-1603. From Herborn Buxtorf went
to Heidelberg, and thence to Basel, attracted by the reputation of J.J.
Grynaeus and J.G. Hospinian (1515-1575). After a short residence at Basel
he studied successively under H.B. Bullinger (1504-1575) at Zuerich and Th.
Beza at Geneva. On his return to Basel, Grynaeus, desirous that the
services of so promising a scholar should be secured to the university,
procured him a situation as tutor in the family of Leo Curio, son of
Coelius Secundus Curio, well-known for his sufferings on account of the
Reformed faith. At the instance of Grynaeus, Buxtorf undertook the duties
of the Hebrew chair in the university, and discharged them for two years
with such ability that at the end of that time he was unanimously appointed
to the vacant office. From this date (1591) to his death in 1629 he
remained in Basel, and devoted himself with remarkable zeal to the study of
Hebrew and rabbinic literature. He received into his house many learned
Jews, that he might discuss his difficulties with them, and he was
frequently consulted by Jews themselves on matters relating to their
ceremonial law. He seems to have well deserved the title which was
conferred upon him of "Master of the Rabbins." His partiality for Jewish
society brought him, indeed, on one occasion into trouble with the
authorities of the city, the laws against the Jews being very strict.
Nevertheless, on the whole, his relations with the city of Basel were
friendly. He remained firmly attached to the university which first
recognized his merits, and declined two invitations from Leiden and Saumur
successively. His correspondence with the most distinguished scholars of
the day was very extensive; the library of the university of Basel contains
a rich collection of letters, which are valuable for a literary history of
the time.

WORKS.--_Manuale Hebraicum et Chaldaicum_ (1602; 7th ed., 1658); _Synagoga
Judaica_ (1603 in German; afterwards translated into Latin in an enlarged
form), a valuable repertory of information regarding the opinions and
ceremonies of the Jews; _Lexicon Hebraicum et Chaldaicum cum brevi Lexico
Rabbinico Philosophico_ (1607; reprinted at Glasgow, 1824); his great
Rabbinical Bible, _Biblic Hebraica cum Paraphr. Chald. et Commentariis
Rabbinorum_ (2 vols., 1618; 4 vols., 1618-1619), containing, in addition to
the Hebrew [v.04 p.0894] text, the Aramaic Paraphrases of Targums,
punctuated after the analogy of the Aramaic passages in Ezra and Daniel (a
proceeding which has been condemned by Richard Simon and others), and the
Commentaries of the more celebrated Rabbis, with various other treatises;
_Tiberias, sive Commentarius Masoreticus_ (1620; quarto edition, improved
and enlarged by J. Buxtorf the younger, 1665), so named from the great
school of Jewish criticism which had its seat in the town of Tiberias. It
was in this work that Buxtorf controverted the views of Elias Levita
regarding the late origin of the Hebrew vowel points, a subject which gave
rise to the controversy between Louis Cappel and his son Johannes Buxtorf
(_q.v._). Buxtorf did not live to complete the two works on which his
reputation chiefly rests, viz. his great _Lexicon Chaldaicum, Talmudicum,
et Rabbinicum_, and the _Concordantiae Bibliorum Hebraicorum_, both of
which were edited by his son. They are monuments of untiring labour and
industry. The lexicon was republished at Leipzig in 1869 with some
additions by Bernard Fischer, and the concordance was assumed by Julius
Fuerst as the basis of his great Hebrew concordance, which appeared in 1840.

For additional information regarding his writings see _Athenae Rauricae_,
pp. 444-448; articles in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyclopaedie_, and
Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyk._; J.P. Niceron's _Memoires_, vol. xxxi. pp.
206-215; J.M. Schroeckh's _Kirchengeschichte_, vol. v. (Post-Reformation
period), pp. 72 seq. (Leipzig, 1806); G.W. Meyer's _Geschichte der
Schrift-Erklaerung_, vol. iii. (Goettingen, 1804); and E. Kautsch, _Johannes
Buxtorf der Aeltere_ (1879).

BUXTORF, or BUXTORFF, JOHANNES (1599-1664), son of the preceding, was born
at Basel on the 13th of August 1599, and when still a boy attained
considerable proficiency in the classical languages. Entering the
university at the age of twelve, he was only sixteen when he obtained his
master's degree. He now gave himself up to theological and especially to
Semitic studies, concentrating later on rabbinical Hebrew, and reading
while yet a young man both the Mishna and the Jerusalem and Babylonian
Gemaras. These studies he further developed by visits to Heidelberg, Dort
(where he made the acquaintance of many of the delegates to the synod of
1619) and Geneva, and in all these places acquired a great reputation. In
1622 he published at Basel a _Lexicon Chaldaicum et Syriacum_, as a
companion work to his father's great Rabbinical Bible. He declined the
chair of logic at Lausanne, and in 1624 was appointed general deacon of the
church at Basel. On the death of his father in 1629, he was unanimously
designated his successor in the Hebrew professorship. From this date until
his death in 1664 he remained at Basel, declining two offers which were
made to him from Groningen and Leiden, to accept the Hebrew chair in these
two celebrated schools. In 1647 the governing body of the university
founded, specially for him, a third theological professorship, that of
"Commonplaces and Controversies," which Buxtorf held for seven years along
with the Hebrew chair. When, however, the professorship of the Old
Testament became vacant in 1654 by the death of Theodor Zwinger, Buxtorf
resigned the chair of theology and accepted that of the Old Testament
instead. He was four times married, his three first wives dying shortly
after marriage and the fourth predeceasing her husband by seven years. His
children died young, with the exception of two boys, the younger of whom,
Jakob (1645-1704), became his father's colleague, and then his successor,
in the chair of Hebrew. The same distinction fell to the lot of his nephew
Johann (1663-1732).

A considerable portion of Buxtorf's public life was spent in controversy
regarding disputed points in biblical criticism, in reference to which he
had to defend his father's views. The attitude of the Reformed churches at
that time, as opposed to the Church of Rome, led them to maintain many
opinions in regard to biblical questions which were not only erroneous, but
altogether unnecessary for the stability of their position. Having
renounced the dogma of an infallible church, it was deemed necessary to
maintain as a counterpoise, not only that of an infallible Bible, but, as
the necessary foundation of this, of a Bible which had been handed down
from the earliest ages without the slightest textual alteration. Even the
vowel points and accents were held to have been given by divine
inspiration. The Massoretic text of the Old Testament, therefore, as
compared either with that of the recently discovered Samaritan Pentateuch,
or the Septuagint or of the Vulgate, alone contained the true words of the
sacred writers. Although many of the Reformers, as well as learned Jews,
had long seen that these assertions could not be made good, there had been
as yet no formal controversy upon the subject. Louis Cappel (_q.v._) was
the first effectually to dispel the illusions which had long prevailed by a
work on the modern origin of the vowel points and accents. The elder
Buxtorf had counselled him not to publish his work, pointing out the injury
which it would do the Protestant cause, but Cappel sent his MS. to Thomas
Erpenius of Leiden, the most learned orientalist of his day, by whom it was
published in 1624, under the title _Arcanum Punctationis revelatum_, but
without the author's name. The elder Buxtorf, though he lived five years
after the publication of the work, made no public reply to it, and it was
not until 1648 that Buxtorf junior published his _Tractatus de punctorum
origine, antiquitate, et authoritate, oppositus Arcano punctationis
revelato Ludovici Cappelli_. He tried to prove by copious citations from
the rabbinical writers, and by arguments of various kinds, that the points,
if not so ancient as the time of Moses, were at least as old as that of
Ezra, and thus possessed the authority of divine inspiration. Unfortunately
he allowed himself to employ contemptuous epithets towards Cappel, such as
"innovator" and "visionary." Cappel speedily prepared a second edition of
his work, in which, besides replying to the arguments of his opponent, and
fortifying his position with new ones, he retorted his contumelious
epithets with interest. Owing to various causes, however, this second
edition did not see the light until 1685, when it was published at
Amsterdam in the edition of his collected works. Besides this controversy,
Buxtorf engaged in three others with the same antagonist, on the subject of
the integrity of the Massoretic text of the Old Testament, on the antiquity
of the present Hebrew characters, and on the Lord's Supper. In the two
former Buxtorf supported the untenable position that the text of the Old
Testament had been transmitted to us without any errors or alteration, and
that the present square or so-called Chaldee characters were coeval with
the original composition of the various books. These views were
triumphantly refuted by his great opponent in his _Critica Sacra_, and in
his _Diatriba veris et antiquis Ebraicorum literis_.

Besides the works already mentioned in the course of this article, Buxtorf
edited the great _Lexicon Chaldaicum, Talmudicum, et Rabbinicum_, on which
his father had spent the labour of twenty years, and to the completion of
which he himself gave ten years of additional study; and the great Hebrew
_Concordance_, which his father had little more than begun. In addition to
these, he published new editions of many of his father's works, as well as
others of his own, complete lists of which may be seen in the _Athenae
Rauricae_ and other works enumerated at the close of the preceding article.

BUYING IN, on the English stock exchange, a transaction by which, if a
member has sold securities which he fails to deliver on settling day, or
any of the succeeding ten days following the settlement, the buyer may give
instructions to a stock exchange official to "buy in" the stock required.
The official announces the quantity of stock, and the purpose for which he
requires it, and whoever sells the stock must be prepared to deliver it
immediately. The original seller has to pay the difference between the two
prices, if the latter is higher than the original contract price. A similar
practice, termed "selling out," prevails when a purchaser fails to take up
his securities.

BUYS BALLOT'S LAW, in meteorology, the name given to a law which may be
expressed as follows:--"Stand with your back to the wind; the low-pressure
area will be on your left-hand." This rule, the truth of which was first
recognized by the American meteorologists J.H. Coffin and W. Ferrel, is a
direct consequence of Ferrel's Law (_q.v._). It is approximately true in
the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, and is reversed in the
Southern Hemisphere, but the angle between barometric gradient and wind is
not a right angle in low latitudes. The law takes its name from C.H.D. Buys
Ballott, a Dutch meteorologist, who published it in the _Comptes rendus_,
November 1857.

BUZEU, the capital of the department of Buzeu, Rumania, situated near the
right bank of the river Buzeu, between the Carpathian Mountains and the
fertile lowlands of south Moldavia and east Walachia. Pop. (1900) 21,561.
Buzeu is important as a market for petroleum, timber and grain. It is the
meeting [v.04 p.0895] place of railroads from Ramnicu Sarat, Braila and
Ploesci. Amber is found by the riverside, and there are cloth-mills in the
city. Buzeu is the seat of a bishop, whose cathedral was erected in 1640 by
Prince Matthias Bassarab of Walachia, on the site of an older church. In
the neighbourhood there are many monasteries. Buzeu was formerly called
Napuca or Buzograd.

BUZOT, FRANCOIS NICOLAS LEONARD (1760-1794), French revolutionist, was born
at Evreux on the 1st of March 1760. He studied law, and at the outbreak of
the Revolution was an advocate in his native town. In 1789 he was elected
deputy to the states-general, and there became known for his advanced
opinions. He demanded the nationalization of the possessions of the clergy,
and the right of all citizens to carry arms. After the dissolution of the
Constituent Assembly, Buzot returned to Evreux, where he was named
president of the criminal tribunal. In 1792 he was elected deputy to the
Convention, and took his place among the Girondists. He demanded the
formation of a national guard from the departments to defend the Convention
against the populace of Paris. His proposal was carried, but never put into
force; and the Parisians were extremely bitter against him and the
Girondists. In the trial of Louis XVI., Buzot voted for death, but with
appeal to the people and postponement of sentence. He had a decree of death
passed against the _emigres_ who did not return to France, and against
anyone who should demand the re-establishment of the monarchy. Proscribed
with the Girondists on the 2nd of June 1793, he succeeded in escaping, and
took refuge in Normandy, where he contributed to organize a federalist
insurrection against the Convention, which was speedily suppressed. Buzot
was outlawed, and fled to the neighbourhood of Bordeaux, and committed
suicide in the woods of St Emilion on the 18th of June 1794. He was an
intelligent and honest man, although he seems to have profited by the sale
of the possessions of the clergy, but he had a stubborn, unyielding
temperament, was incapable of making concessions, and was dominated by
Madame Roland, who imparted to him her hatred of Danton and the
Montagnards.

See _Memoires de Petion, Barbaroux, Buzot_, published by C.A. Daubon
(Paris, 1866). For the history of the federalist movement in Normandy, see
L. Boivin Champeaux, _Notices pour servir a, l'histoire de la Revolution
dans le departement de l'Eure_ (Evreux and Paris, 1884).

BUZZARD, a word derived from the Lat. _Buteo_, through the Fr. _Busard_,
and used in a general sense for a large group of diurnal birds-of-prey,
which contains, among many others, the species usually known as the common
buzzard (_Buteo vulgaris_, Leach), though the English epithet is nowadays
hardly applicable. The name buzzard, however, belongs quite as rightfully
to the birds called in books "harriers," which form a distinct subfamily of
_Falconidae_ under the title _Circinae_, and by it one species, the
moor-buzzard (_Circus aeruginosus_), is still known in such places as it
inhabits. "Puttock" is also another name used in some parts of England, but
perhaps is rather a synonym of the kite (_Milvus ictinus_). Though
ornithological writers are almost unanimous in distinguishing the buzzards
as a group from the eagles, the grounds usually assigned for their
separation are but slight, and the diagnostic character that can be best
trusted is probably that in the former the bill is decurved from the base,
while in the latter it is for about a third of its length straight. The
head, too, in buzzards is short and round, while in the eagles it is
elongated. In a general way buzzards are smaller than eagles, though there
are several exceptions to this statement, and have their plumage more
mottled. Furthermore, most if not all of the buzzards, about which anything
of the kind is with certainty known, assume their adult dress at the first
moult, while the eagles take a longer time to reach maturity. The buzzards
are fine-looking birds, but are slow and heavy of flight, so that in the
old days of falconry they were regarded with infinite scorn, and hence in
common English to call a man "a buzzard" is to denounce him as stupid.
Their food consists of small mammals, young birds, reptiles, amphibians and
insects--particularly beetles--and thus they never could have been very
injurious to the game-preserver, if indeed they were not really his
friends, though they have fallen under his ban; but at the present day they
are so scarce that in England their effect, whatever it may be, is
inappreciable. Buzzards are found over the whole world with the exception
of the Australian region, and have been split into many genera by
systematists. In the British Islands are two species, one resident (the _B.
vulgaris_ already mentioned), and now almost confined to a few wooded
districts; the other the rough-legged buzzard (_Archibuteo lagopus_), an
irregular winter-visitant, sometimes arriving in large bands from the north
of Europe, and readily distinguishable from the former by being feathered
down to the toes. The honey-buzzard (_Pernis apivorus_), a summer-visitor
from the south, and breeding, or attempting to breed, yearly in the New
Forest, does not come into the subfamily _Buteoninae_, but is probably the
type of a distinct group, _Perninae_, of which there are other examples in
Africa and Asia. In America the name "buzzard" is popularly given to the
turkey-buzzard or turkey-vulture (_Cathartes Aura_).

(A. N.)

BYELAYA TSERKOV (_i.e._ White Church), a town of Russia, in the government
of Kiev, 32 m. S.S.W. of Vasilkov, on the main road from Kiev to the
Crimea, in 49 deg. 47' N. lat. and 30 deg. 7' E. long. Pop. (1860) 12,075; (1897)
20,705. First mentioned in 1155, Byelaya Tserkov was destroyed during the
Mongol invasion of the 13th century. In 1550 a castle was built here by the
prince of Kiev, and various privileges were bestowed upon the inhabitants.
From 1651 the town was subject alternately to Poland and to independent
hetmans (Cossack chiefs). In 1793 it was united to Russia. There is a trade
in beer, cattle and grain, sold at eleven annual fairs, three of which last
for ten days each.

BYELEV, a town of Russia, in the government of Tula, and 67 m. S.W. from
the city of that name on the left bank of the Oka, in 53 deg. 48' N. lat., and
36 deg. 9' E. long. Pop. (1860) 8063; (1897) 9567. It is first mentioned in
1147. It belonged to Lithuania in the end of the 14th century; and in 1468
it was raised to the rank of a principality, dependent on that country. In
the end of the 15th century this principality began to attach itself to the
grand-duchy of Moscow; and by Ivan III. it was ultimately united to Russia.
It suffered greatly from the Tatars in 1507, 1512, 1530, 1536 and 1544. In
1826 the empress Elizabeth died here on her way from Taganrog to St
Petersburg. A public library was founded in 1858 in memory of the poet
Zhukovsky, who was born (1782) in a neighbouring village. The industries
comprise tallow-boiling, oil-manufacture, tanning, sugar-refining and
distilling. There is a trade in grain, hemp oil, cattle and tallow. A fair
is held from the 28th of August to the loth of September every year.

BYELGOROD (_i.e._ White Town), a town of Russia, in the government of
Kursk, 100 m. S.S.E. by rail from the city of that name, in 50 deg. 46' N. lat.
and 36 deg. 37' E. long., clustering on a chalk hill on the right bank of the
Donets. Pop. (1860) 11,722; (1897) 21,850. In the 17th century it suffered
repeatedly from Tatar incursions, against which there was built (from 1633
to 1740) an earthen wall, with twelve forts, extending upwards of 200 m.
from the Vorskla to the Don, and called the Byelgorod line. In 1666 an
archiepiscopal see was established in the town. There are two cathedral
churches, both built in the 16th century, as well as a theological
seminary. Candles, leather, soap, lime and bricks are manufactured, and a
trade is carried on in grain, cattle, wool, honey, wax and tallow. There
are three annual fairs, on the 10th Friday after Easter, the 29th of June
and the 15th of August respectively.

BYELOSTOK (Polish, _Bialystok_), a town of West Russia, in the government
of and 53 m. by rail S.W. of the city of Grodno, on the main railway line
from Moscow to Warsaw, at its junction with the Kiev-Grayevo (Prussian
frontier) line. Founded in 1320, it became part of Prussia after the third
partition of Poland, but was annexed to Russia in 1807, after the peace of
Tilsit. Its development dates from 1845, when woollen-mills were built.
Since that time it has grown very rapidly, its population being 13,787 in
1857; 56,629 in 1889; and 65,781 in 1901, three-fourths Jews. Its woollen,
silk and felt hat factories give occupation to several thousand workers.

[v.04 p.0896] BYEZHETSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tver, and
70 m. N.N.E. of the city of that name, on the right bank of the Mologa, in
57 deg. 46' N. lat. and 36 deg. 43' E. long. Pop. (1860) 5423; (1897) 9090. It is
mentioned in the chronicles of 1137. On the fall of Novgorod, to which it
had belonged, it was incorporated (1479) with the grand-duchy of Moscow.
The town is famous for its scythes and shearing hooks, but makes also axes,
nails and other hardware, and trades in grain, linen, hemp and flax.

BY-LAW, or BYE-LAW (_by-_ being used in the sense of subordinate or
secondary, cf. by-path), a regulation made by councils, boards,
corporations and companies, usually under statutory power, for the
preservation of order and good government within some place or
jurisdiction. When made under authority of a statute, by-laws must
generally, before they come into operation, be submitted to some confirming
authority for sanction and approval; when approved, they are as binding as
enacted laws. By-laws must be reasonable in themselves; they must not be
retrospective nor contrary to the general law of the land. By various
statutes powers are given to borough, county and district councils, to make
by-laws for various purposes; corporate bodies, also, are empowered by
their charters to make by-laws which are binding on their members. Such
by-laws must be in harmony with the objects of the society and must not
infringe or limit the powers and duties of its officers.

BYLES, MATHER (1706-1788), American clergyman, was born in Boston,
Massachusetts, on the 26th of March 1706, descended, on his mother's side,
from John Cotton and Richard Mather. He graduated at Harvard in 1725, and
in 1733 became pastor of the Hollis Street church (Congregational), Boston.
He held a high rank among the clergy of the province and was noted for his
scholarly sermons and his ready wit. At the outbreak of the War of
Independence he was outspoken in his advocacy of the royal cause, and after
the British evacuation of Boston his connexion with his church was
dissolved. He remained in Boston, however, and subsequently (1777) was
arrested, tried and sentenced to deportation. This sentence was later
changed to imprisonment in his own house. He was soon released, but never
resumed his pastorate. He died in Boston on the 5th of July 1788. Besides
many sermons he published _A Poem on the Death of George I._ (1727) and
_Miscellaneous Poems_ (1744).

His son, MATHER BYLES (1735-1814), graduated at Harvard in 1751, and was a
Congregational clergyman at New London, Connecticut, until 1768, when he
entered the Established Church, and became rector of Christ church, Boston.
Sympathizing with the royal cause, he settled, after the War of
Independence, in St Johns, New Brunswick, where he was rector of a church
until his death.

BYNG, JOHN (1704-1757), British admiral, was the fourth son of George Byng,
Lord Torrington, and entered the navy in 1718. The powerful influence of
his father accounts for his rapid rise in the service. He received his
first appointment as lieutenant in 1723, and became captain in 1727. His
career presents nothing of note till after his promotion as rear-admiral in
1745, and as vice-admiral in 1747. He served on the most comfortable
stations, and avoided the more arduous work of the navy. On the approach of
the Seven Years' War the island of Minorca was threatened by an attack from
Toulon and was actually invaded in 1756. Byng, who was then serving in the
Channel with the rank of admiral, which he attained in 1755, was ordered to
the Mediterranean to relieve the garrison of Fort St Philip, which was
still holding out. The squadron was not very well manned, and Byng was in
particular much aggrieved because his marines were landed to make room for
the soldiers who were to reinforce the garrison, and he feared that if he
met a French squadron after he had lost them he would be dangerously
undermanned. His correspondence shows clearly that he left prepared for
failure, that he did not believe that the garrison could hold out against
the French force landed, and that he was already resolved to come back from
Minorca if he found that the task presented any great difficulty. He wrote
home to that effect to the ministry from Gibraltar. The governor of the
fortress refused to spare any of his soldiers to increase the relief for
Minorca, and Byng sailed on the 8th of May. On the 19th he was off Minorca,
and endeavoured to open communications with the fort. Before he could land
any of the soldiers, the French squadron appeared. A battle was fought on
the following day. Byng, who had gained the weather gauge, bore down on the
French fleet of M. de la Galissoniere at an angle, so that his leading
ships came into action unsupported by the rest of his line. The French cut
the leading ships up, and then slipped away. When the flag captain pointed
out to Byng that by standing out of his line he could bring the centre of
the enemy to closer action, he declined on the ground that Thomas Mathews
had been condemned for so doing. The French, who were equal in number to
the English, got away undamaged. After remaining near Minorca for four days
without making any further attempt to communicate with the fort or sighting
the French, Byng sailed away to Gibraltar leaving Fort St Philip to its
fate. The failure caused a savage outburst of wrath in the country. Byng
was brought home, tried by court-martial, condemned to death, and shot on
the 14th of March 1757 at Portsmouth. The severity of the penalty, aided by
a not unjust suspicion that the ministry sought to cover themselves by
throwing all the blame on the admiral, led in after time to a reaction in
favour of Byng. It became a commonplace to say that he was put to death for
an error of judgment. The court had indeed acquitted him of personal
cowardice or of disaffection, and only condemned him for not having done
his utmost. But it must be remembered that in consequence of many scandals
which had taken place in the previous war the Articles of War had been
deliberately revised so as to leave no punishment save death for the
officer of any rank who did not do his utmost against the enemy either in
battle or pursuit. That Byng had not done all he could is undeniable, and
he therefore fell under the law. Neither must it be forgotten that in the
previous war in 1745 an unhappy young lieutenant, Baker Phillips by name,
whose captain had brought his ship into action unprepared, and who, when
his superior was killed, surrendered the ship when she could no longer be
defended, was shot by sentence of a court-martial. This savage punishment
was approved by the higher officers of the navy, who showed great lenity to
men of their own rank. The contrast had angered the country, and the
Articles of War had been amended precisely in order that there might be one
law for all.

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