Book: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 4

V >> Various >> Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 4




A complete edition of Cabanis's works was begun in 1825, and five volumes
were published. His principal work, _Rapports du physique et du moral de
l'homme_, consists in part of memoirs, read in 1796 and 1797 to the
Institute, and is a sketch of physiological psychology. Psychology is with
Cabanis directly linked on to biology, for sensibility, the fundamental
fact, is the highest grade of life and the lowest of intelligence. All the
intellectual processes are evolved from sensibility, and sensibility itself
is a property of the nervous system. The soul is not an entity, but a
faculty; thought is the function of the brain. Just as the stomach and
intestines receive food and digest it, so the brain receives impressions,
digests them, and has as its organic secretion, thought. Alongside of this
harsh materialism Cabanis held another principle. He belonged in biology to
the vitalistic school of G.E. Stahl, and in the posthumous work, _Lettre
sur les causes premieres_ (1824), the consequences of this opinion became
clear. Life is something added to the organism; over and above the
universally diffused sensibility there is some living and productive power
to which we give the name of Nature. But it is impossible to avoid
ascribing to this power both intelligence and will. In us this living power
constitutes the ego, which is truly immaterial and immortal. These results
Cabanis did not think out of harmony with his earlier theory.

CABARRUS, FRANCOIS (1752-1810), French adventurer and Spanish financier,
was born at Bayonne, where his father was a merchant. Being sent into Spain
on business he fell in love with a Spanish lady, and marrying her, settled
in Madrid. Here his private business was the manufacture of soap; but he
soon began to interest himself in the public questions which were
ventilated even at the court of Spain. The enlightenment of the 18th
century had penetrated as far as Madrid; the king, Charles III., was
favourable to reform; and a circle of men animated by the new spirit were
trying to infuse fresh vigour into an enfeebled state. Among these Cabarrus
became conspicuous, especially in finance. He originated a bank, and a
company to trade with the Philippine Islands; and as one of the council of
finance he had planned many reforms in that department of the
administration, when Charles III. died (1788), and the reactionary
government of Charles IV. arrested every kind of enlightened progress. The
men who had taken an active part in reform were suspected and prosecuted.
Cabarrus himself was accused of embezzlement and thrown into prison. After
a confinement of two years he was released, created a count and employed in
many honourable missions; he would even have been sent to Paris as Spanish
ambassador, had not the Directory objected to him as being of French birth.
Cabarrus took no part in the transactions by which Charles IV. was obliged
to abdicate and make way for Joseph, brother of Napoleon, but his French
birth and intimate knowledge of Spanish affairs recommended him to the
emperor as the fittest person for the difficult post of minister of
finance, which he held at his death. His beautiful daughter Therese, under
the name of Madame Tallien (afterwards princess of Chimay), played an
interesting part in the later stages of the French Revolution.

CABASILAS, NICOLAUS (d. 1371), Byzantine mystic and theological writer. He
was on intimate terms with the emperor John VI. Cantacuzene, whom he
accompanied in his retirement to a monastery. In 1355 he succeeded his
uncle Nilus Cabasilas, like himself a determined opponent of the union of
the Greek and Latin churches, as archbishop of Thessalonica. In the
Hesychast controversy he took the side of the monks of Athos, but refused
to agree to the theory of the uncreated light. His chief work is his
[Greek: Peri tes en Christoi zoes] (_ed. pr._ of the Greek text, with
copious introduction, by W. Gass, 1849; new ed. by M. Heinze, 1899), in
which he lays down the principle that union with Christ is effected by the
three great mysteries of baptism, confirmation and the eucharist. He also
wrote homilies on various subjects, and a speech against usurers, printed
with other works in Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, c. i. A large number of his
works is still extant in MS.

See C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897), and
article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopaedie fuer protestantische Theologie_
(1901).

CABATUAN, a town of the province of Iloilo, Panay, Philippine Islands, on a
branch of the Suague river, 15 m. N.W. of Iloilo, the capital. Pop. (1903)
16,497. In 1903, after the census had been taken, the neighbouring town of
Maasin, with a population of 8401, was annexed to Cabatuan. Its climate is
healthful. The surrounding country is very fertile and produces large
quantities of rice, as well as Indian corn, tobacco, sugar, coffee and a
great variety of fruits. The language is Visayan. Cabatuan was founded in
1732.

CABBAGE. The parent form of the variety of culinary and fodder vegetables
included under this head is generally supposed to be the wild or sea
cabbage (_Brassica oleracea_), a plant found near the sea coast of various
parts of England and continental Europe, although Alphonse de Candolle
considered it to be really descended from the two or three allied species
which are yet found growing wild on the Mediterranean coast. In any case
the cultivated varieties have departed very widely from the original type,
and they present very marked and striking dissimilarities among themselves.
The wild cabbage is a comparatively insignificant plant, growing from 1 to
2 ft. high, in appearance very similar to the corn mustard or charlock
(_Sinapis arvensis_), but differing from it in having smooth leaves. The
wild plant has fleshy, shining, waved and lobed leaves (the uppermost being
undivided but toothed), large yellow flowers, elongated seed-pod, and seeds
with conduplicate cotyledons. Notwithstanding the fact that the cultivated
forms differ in habit so widely, it is remarkable that the flower,
seed-pods and seeds of the varieties present no appreciable difference.

John Lindley proposed the following classification for the various forms,
which includes all yet cultivated: (1) All the leaf-buds active and open,
as in wild cabbage and kale or greens; (2) All the leaf-buds active, but
forming heads, as in Brussels sprouts; (3) Terminal leaf-bud alone active,
forming a head, as in common cabbage, savoys, &c.; (4) Terminal leaf-bud
alone active and open, with most of the flowers abortive and succulent, as
in cauliflower and broccoli; (5) All the leaf-buds active and open, with
most of the flowers abortive and succulent, as in sprouting broccoli. The
last variety bears the same relation to common broccoli as Brussels sprouts
do to the common cabbage. Of all these forms there are numerous gardeners'
varieties, all of which reproduce faithfully enough their parent form by
proper and separate cultivation.

Under Lindley's first class, common or Scotch kale or borecole (_Brassica
oleracea_ var. _acephala_ or var. _fimbriata_) includes several varieties
which are amongst the hardiest of our esculents, and seldom fail to yield a
good supply of winter greens. They require well-enriched soil, and
sufficient space for full exposure to air; and they should also be sown
early, so as to be well [v.04 p.0915] established and hardened before
winter. The main crops should be sown about the first week of April, or, in
the north, in the third week of March, and a succession a month later. The
Buda kale is sown in May, and planted out in September, but a sowing for
late spring use may be made in the last week of August and transplanted
towards the end of September. To prevent overcrowding, the plants should be
transplanted as soon as they are of sufficient size, but if the ground is
not ready to receive them a sufficient number should be pricked out in some
open spot. In general the more vigorous sorts should be planted in rows 3
ft. and the smaller growers 2 ft. apart, and 18 in. from plant to plant. In
these the heads should be first used, only so much of the heart as is fresh
and tender being cut out for boiling; side shoots or sprouts are afterwards
produced for a long time in succession, and may be used so long as they are
tender enough to admit of being gathered by snapping their stalks asunder.

The plant sends up a stout central stem, growing upright to a height of
about 2 ft., with close-set, large thick, plain leaves of a light red or
purplish hue. The lower leaves are stripped off for use as the plants grow
up, and used for the preparation of broth or "Scotch kail," a dish at one
time in great repute in the north-eastern districts of Scotland. A very
remarkable variety of open-leaved cabbage is cultivated in the Channel
Islands under the name of the Jersey or branching cabbage. It grows to a
height of 8 ft, but has been known to attain double that altitude. It
throws out branches from the central stem, which is sufficiently firm and
woody to be fashioned into walking-sticks; and the stems are even used by
the islanders as rafters for bearing the thatch on their cottage-roofs.
Several varieties are cultivated as ornamental plants on account of their
beautifully coloured, frizzled and laciniated leaves.

Brussels sprouts (_Brassica oleracea_ var. _bullata gemmifera_) are
miniature cabbage-heads, about an inch in diameter, which form in the axils
of the leaves. There appears to be no information as to the plant's origin,
but, according to Van Mons (1765-1842), physician and chemist, it is
mentioned in the year 1213, in the regulations for holding the markets of
Belgium, under the name of _spruyten_ (sprouts). It is very hardy and
productive, and is much esteemed for the table on account of its flavour
and its sightly appearance. The seed should be sown about the middle of
March, and again in the first or second week in April for succession. Any
good garden soil is suitable. For an early crop it may be sown in a warm
pit in February, pricked out and hardened in frames, and planted out in a
warm situation in April. The main crop may be planted in rows 2 ft.
asunder, the plants 18 in. apart. They should be got out early, so as to be
well established and come into use before winter. The head may be cut and
used after the best of the little rosettes which feather the stem have been
gathered; but, if cut too early, it exposes these rosettes, which are the
most delicate portion of the produce, to injury, if the weather be severe.
The earliest sprouts become fit for use in November, and they continue
good, or even improve in quality, till the month of March following; by
successive sowings the sprouts are obtained for the greater part of the
year.

The third class is chiefly represented by the common or drumhead cabbage,
_Brassica oleracea_ var. _capitata_, the varieties of which are
distinguished by difference in size, form and colour. In Germany it is
converted into a popular article of diet under the name of _Sauerkraut_ by
placing in a tub alternate layers of salt and cabbage. An acid fermentation
sets in, which after a few days is complete, when the vessel is tightly
covered over and the product kept for use with animal food.

The savoy is a hardy green variety, characterized by its very wrinkled
leaves. The Portugal cabbage, or _Couve Tronchuda_, is a variety, the tops
of which form an excellent cabbage, while the midribs of the large leaves
are cooked like sea-kale.

Cabbages contain a very small percentage of nitrogenous compounds as
compared with most other articles of food. Their percentage composition,
when cooked, is--water, 97.4; fat, 0.1; carbohydrate, 0.4; mineral matter,
0.1; cellulose, 1.3; nitrogenous matter (only about half being proteid),
0.6. Their food-value, apart from their anti-scorbutic properties, is
therefore practically nil.

The cabbage requires a well-manured and well-wrought loamy soil. It should
have abundant water in summer, liquid manure being specially beneficial.
Round London where it is grown in perfection, the ground for it is dug to
the depth of two spades or spits, the lower portion being brought up to the
action of the weather, and rendered available as food for the plants; while
the top-soil, containing the eggs and larvae of many insects, being deeply
buried, the plants are less liable to be attacked by the club disease.
Farm-yard manure is that most suitable for the cabbage, but artificial
manures such as guano, superphosphate of lime or gypsum, together with
lime-rubbish, wood-ashes and marl, may, if required, be applied with
advantage.

The first sowing of cabbage should be made about the beginning of March;
this will be ready for use in July and August, following the autumn-sown
crops. Another sowing should be made in the last week of March or first
week of April, and will afford a supply from August till November; and a
further crop may be made in May to supply young-hearted cabbages in the
early part of winter. The autumn sowing, which is the most important, and
affords the supply for spring and early summer use, should be made about
the last week in August, in warm localities in the south, and about a
fortnight earlier in the north; or, to meet fluctuations of climate, it is
as well in both cases to anticipate this sowing by another two or three
weeks earlier, planting out a portion from each, but the larger number from
that sowing which promises best to stand without running to seed.

The cabbages grown late in autumn and in the beginning of winter are
denominated coleworts (vulg. collards), from a kindred vegetable no longer
cultivated. Two sowings are made, in the middle of June and in July, and
the seedlings are planted a foot or 15 in. asunder, the rows being 8 or 10
in. apart. The sorts employed are the Rosette and the Hardy Green.

About London the large sorts, as Enfield Market, are planted for spring
cabbages 2 ft. apart each way; but a plant from an earlier sowing is
dibbled in between every two in the rows, and an intermediate row a foot
apart is put in between the permanent rows, these extra plants being drawn
as coleworts in the course of the winter. The smaller sorts of cabbage may
be planted 12 in. apart, with 12 or 15 in. between the rows. The large
sorts should be planted 2 ft. apart, with 21/2 ft. between the rows. The only
culture required is to stir the surface with the hoe to destroy the weeds,
and to draw up the soil round the stems.

The red cabbage, _Brassica oleracea_ var. _capitata rubra_, of which the
Red Dutch is the most commonly grown, is much used for pickling. It is sown
about the end of July, and again in March or April. The Dwarf Red and
Utrecht Red are smaller sorts. The culture is in every respect the same as
in the other sorts, but the plants have to stand until they form hard close
hearts.

Cauliflower, which is the chief representative of class 4, consists of the
inflorescence of the plant modified so as to form a compact succulent white
mass or head. The cauliflower (_Brassica oleracea_ var. _botrytis
cauliflora_) is said by our old authors to have been introduced from
Cyprus, where, as well as on the Mediterranean coasts, it appears to have
been cultivated for ages. It is one of the most delicately flavoured of
vegetables, the dense cluster formed by its incipient succulent flower-buds
being the edible portion.

The sowing for the first or spring crop, to be in use in May and June,
should be made from the 15th to the 25th of August for England, and from
the 1st to the 15th of August for Scotland. In the neighbourhood of London
the growers adhere as nearly as possible to the 21st day. A sowing to
produce heads in July and August takes place in February on a slight
hotbed. A late spring sowing to produce cauliflowers in September or
October or later, should be made early in April and another about the 20th
of May.

The cauliflower succeeds best in a rich soil and sheltered position; but,
to protect the young plants in winter, they are sometimes pricked out in a
warm situation at the foot of a south [v.04 p.0916] wall, and in severe
weather covered with hoops and mats. A better method is to plant them
thickly under a garden frame, securing them from cold by coverings and
giving air in mild weather. For a very early supply, a few scores of plants
may be potted and kept under glass during winter and planted out in spring,
defended with a hand-glass. Sometimes patches of three or four plants on a
south border are sheltered by hand-glasses throughout the winter. It is
advantageous to prick out the spring-sown plants into some sheltered place
before they are finally transplanted in May. The later crop, the
transplanting of which may take place at various times, is treated like
early cabbages. After planting, all that is necessary is to hoe the ground
and draw up the soil about the stems.

It is found that cauliflowers ready for use in October may be kept in
perfection over winter. For this purpose they are lifted carefully with the
spade, keeping a ball of earth attached to the roots. Some of the large
outside leaves are removed, and any points of leaves that immediately
overhang the flower are cut off. They are then placed either in pots or in
garden frames, the plants being arranged close together, but without
touching. In mild dry weather the glass frames are drawn off, but they are
kept on during rainstorms, ventilation being afforded by slightly tilting
the frames, and in severe frost they are thickly covered with mats.

Broccoli is merely a variety of cauliflower, differing from the other in
the form and colour of its inflorescence and its hardiness. The broccoli
(_Brassica oleracea_ var. _botrytis asparagoides_) succeeds best in loamy
soil, somewhat firm in texture. For the autumn broccolis the ground can
scarcely be too rich, but the winter and spring sorts on ground of this
character are apt to become so succulent and tender that the plants suffer
from frost even in sheltered situations, while plants less stimulated by
manure and growing in the open field may be nearly all saved, even in
severe winters. The main crops of the early sorts for use in autumn should
be sown early in May, and planted out while young to prevent them coming
too early into flower; in the north they may be sown a fortnight earlier.
The later sorts for use during winter and spring should be sown about the
middle or end of May, or about ten days earlier in the north. The seed-beds
should be made in fresh light soil; and if the season be dry the ground
should be well watered before sowing. If the young plants are crowding each
other they should be thinned. The ground should not be dug before planting
them out, as the firmer it is the better; but a shallow drill may be drawn
to mark the lines. The larger-growing sorts may be put in rows 3 ft. apart,
and the plants about 21/2 ft. apart in the rows, and the smaller-growing ones
at from 2 to 21/2 ft. between, and 11/2 to 2 ft. in the rows. If the ground is
not prepared when young plants are ready for removal, they should be
transferred to nursery beds and planted at 3 to 4 in. apart, but the
earlier they can be got into their permanent places the better.

It is of course the young flower-heads of the plant which are eaten. When
these form, they should be shielded from the light by bending or breaking
down an inner leaf or two. In some of the sorts the leaves naturally curve
over the heads. To prevent injury to the heads by frost in severe winters,
the plants should be laid in with their heads sloping towards the north,
the soil being thrown back so as to cover their stems; or they may be taken
up and laid in closely in deep trenches, so that none of the lower bare
portion of the stem may be exposed. Some dry fern may also be laid over the
tops. The spring varieties are extremely valuable, as they come at a season
when the finer vegetables are scarce. They afford a supply from December to
May inclusive.

Broccoli sprouts, the representative of the fifth class, are a form of
recent introduction, and consist of flowering sprouts springing from the
axils of the leaves. The purple-leaved variety is a very hardy and
much-esteemed vegetable.

Kohl-rabi (_Brassica oleracea_ var. _caulo-rapa_) is a peculiar variety of
cabbage in which the stem, just above ground, swells into a fleshy
turnip-like mass. It is much cultivated in certain districts as a food for
stock, for which purpose the drumhead cabbage and the thousand-headed kale
are also largely used. Kohl-rabi is exceedingly hardy, withstanding both
severe frosts and drought. It is not much grown in English gardens, though
when used young it forms a good substitute for turnips. The seeds should be
sown in May and June, and the seedlings should be planted shallowly in
well-manured ground, 8 or 10 in. apart, in rows 15 in. asunder; and they
should be well watered, so as to induce quick growth.

The varieties of cabbage, like other fresh vegetables, are possessed of
anti-scorbutic properties; but unless eaten when very fresh and tender they
are difficult of digestion, and have a very decided tendency to produce
flatulence.

Although the varieties reproduce by seed with remarkable constancy,
occasional departures from the types occur, more especially among the
varieties of spring cabbages, cauliflowers and broccoli. The departures,
known technically as "rogues," are not as a rule sufficiently numerous to
materially affect crops grown for domestic purposes. Rogues appearing among
the stocks of seed-growers, however, if allowed to remain, very materially
affect the character of particular stocks by the dissemination of strange
pollen and by the admixture of their seed. Great care is exercised by
seed-growers, with reputations to maintain, to eliminate these from among
their stock-plants before the flowering period is reached.

Several species of palm, from the fact of yielding large sapid central buds
which are cooked as vegetables, are known as cabbage-palms. The principal
of these is _Areca oleracea_, but other species, such as the coco-palm, the
royal palm (_Oreodoxa regia_), _Arenga saccharifera_ and others yield
similar edible leaf-buds.

CABEIRI, in Greek mythology, a group of minor deities, of whose character
and worship nothing certain is known. Their chief seats of worship were the
islands of Lemnos, Imbros and Samothrace, the coast of Troas, Thessalia and
Boeotia. The name appears to be of Phoenician origin, signifying the
"great" gods, and the Cabeiri seem to have been deities of the sea who
protected sailors and navigation, as such often identified with the
Dioscuri, the symbol of their presence being St Elmo's fire. Originally the
Cabeiri were two in number, an older identified with Hephaestus (or
Dionysus), and a younger identified with Hermes, who in the Samothracian
mysteries was called Cadmilus or Casmilus. Their cult at an early date was
united with that of Demeter and Kore, with the result that two pairs of
Cabeiri appeared, Hephaestus and Demeter, and Cadmilus and Kore. According
to Mnaseas[1] (quoted by the scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius i. 917) they
were four in number:--Axieros, Axiokersa, Axiokersos, Casmilus. It is there
stated that Axieros is Demeter; Axiokersa, Persephone; Axiokersos, Hades;
and Casmilus, Hermes. The substitution of Hades for Hephaestus is due to
the fact that Hades was regarded as the husband of Persephone. Cabeiro, who
is mentioned in the logographers Acusilaus and Pherecydes as the wife of
Hephaestus, is identical with Demeter, who indeed is expressly called
[Greek: Kabeiria] in Thebes. Roman antiquarians identified the Cabeiri with
the three Capitoline deities or with the Penates. In Lemnos an annual
festival of the Cabeiri was held, lasting nine days, during which all the
fires were extinguished and fire brought from Delos. From this fact and
from the statement of Strabo x. p. 473, that the father of the Cabeiri was
Camillus, a son of Hephaestus, the Cabeiri have been thought to be, like
the Corybantes, Curetes and Dactyli, demons of volcanic fire. But this view
is not now generally held. In Lemnos they fostered the vine and fruits of
the field, and from their connexion with Hermes in Samothrace it would also
seem that they promoted the fruitfulness of cattle.

By far the most important seat of their worship was Samothrace. Here, as
early as the 5th century B.C., their mysteries, possibly under Athenian
influence, attracted great attention, and initiation was looked upon as a
general safeguard against all misfortune. But it was in the period after
the death of Alexander the Great that their cult reached its height.
Demetrius Poliorcetes, Lysimachus and Arsinoe regarded the Cabeiri with
especial favour, and initiation was sought, not only by large numbers of
pilgrims, but by persons of distinction. Initiation included also an asylum
or refuge within the strong walls of Samothrace, for which purpose it was
used among others by Arsinoe, who, to show her gratitude, afterwards caused
a monument to be erected there, the ruins of which were explored in [v.04
p.0917] 1874 by an Austrian archaeological expedition. In 1888 interesting
details as to the Boeotian cult of the Cabeiri were obtained by the
excavations of their temple in the neighbourhood of Thebes, conducted by
the German archaeological institute. The two male deities worshipped were
Cabeiros and a boy: the Cabeiros resembles Dionysus, being represented on
vases as lying on a couch, his head surrounded with a garland of ivy, a
drinking cup in his right hand; and accompanied by maenads and satyrs. The
boy is probably his cup-bearer. The Cabeiri were held in even greater
esteem by the Romans, who regarded themselves as descendants of the
Trojans, whose ancestor Dardanus (himself identified in heroic legend with
one of the Cabeiri) came from Samothrace. The identification of the three
Capitoline deities with the Penates, and of these with the Cabeiri, tended
to increase this feeling.

Copyright (c) 2007. knowncrafts.net. All rights reserved.