Book: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 4

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CEREUS.--This group bears the common name of torch thistle. It comprises
about 100 species, largely Mexican but scattered through South America and
the West Indies. The stems are columnar or elongated, some of the latter
creeping on the ground or climbing up the trunks of trees, rooting as they
grow. _C. giganteus_, the largest and most striking species of the genus,
is a native of hot, arid, desert regions of New Mexico, growing there in
rocky valleys and on mountain sides, where the tall stems with their erect
branches have the appearance of telegraph poles. The stems grow to a height
of from 50 ft. to 60 ft., and have a diameter of from 1 ft. to 2 ft., often
unbranched, but sometimes furnished with branches [v.04 p.0926] which grow
out at right angles from the main stem, and then curve upwards and continue
their growth parallel to it; these stems have from twelve to twenty ribs,
on which at intervals of about an inch are the buds with their thick yellow
cushions, from which issue five or six large and numerous smaller spines.
The fruits of this plant, which are green oval bodies from 2 to 3 in. long,
contain a crimson pulp from which the Pimos and Papagos Indians prepare an
excellent preserve; and they also use the ripe fruit as an article of food,
gathering it by means of a forked stick attached to a long pole. The
Cereuses include some of our most interesting and beautiful hothouse
plants. In the allied genus _Echinocereus_, with 25 to 30 species in North
and South America, the stems are short, branched or simple, divided into
few or many ridges all armed with sharp, formidable spines. _E. pectinatus
_produces a purplish fruit resembling a gooseberry, which is very good
eating; and the fleshy part of the stem itself, which is called _cabeza del
viego_ by the Mexicans, is eaten by them as a vegetable after removing the
spines.

PILOCEREUS, the old man cactus, forms a small genus with tallish erect,
fleshy, angulate stems, on which, with the tufts of spines, are developed
hair-like bodies, which, though rather coarse, bear some resemblance to the
hoary locks of an old man. The plants are nearly allied to _Cereus_,
differing chiefly in the floriferous portion developing these longer and
more attenuated hair-like spines, which surround the base of the flowers
and form a dense woolly head or cephalium. The most familiar species is _P.
senilis_, a Mexican plant, which though seldom seen more than a foot or two
in height in greenhouses, reaches from 20 ft. to 30 ft. in its native
country.

ECHINOPSIS is another small group of species, separated by some authors
from _Cereus_. They are dwarf, ribbed, globose or cylindrical plants; and
the flowers, which are produced from the side instead of the apex of the
stem, are large, and in some cases very beautiful, being remarkable for the
length of the tube, which is more or less covered with bristly hairs. They
are natives of Brazil, Bolivia and Chile.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Branch of _Phyllocactus_ much reduced; the flowers
are 6 in. or more in diameter.]

PHYLLOCACTUS (fig. 3), the Leaf Cactus family, consists of about a dozen
species, found in Central and tropical South America. They differ from all
the forms already noticed in being shrubby and epiphytal in habit, and in
having the branches compressed and dilated so as to resemble thick fleshy
leaves, with a strong median axis and rounded woody base. The margins of
these leaf-like branches are more or less crenately notched, the notches
representing buds, as do the spine-clusters in the spiny genera; and from
these crenatures the large showy flowers are produced. As garden plants the
_Phyllocacti_ are amongst the most ornamental of the whole family, being of
easy culture, free blooming and remarkably showy, the colour of the flowers
ranging from rich crimson, through rose-pink to creamy white. Cuttings
strike readily in spring before growth has commenced; they should be potted
in 3-in. or 4-in. pots, well drained, in loamy soil made very porous by the
admixture of finely broken crocks and sand, and placed in a temperature of
60 deg.; when these pots are filled with roots they are to be shifted into
larger ones, but overpotting must be avoided. During the summer they need
considerable heat, all the light possible and plenty of air; in winter a
temperature of 45 deg. or 50 deg. will be sufficient, and they must be kept
tolerably dry at the root. By the spring they may have larger pots if
required and should be kept in a hot and fairly moistened atmosphere; and
by the end of June, when they have made new growth, they may be turned out
under a south wall in the full sun, water being given only as required. In
autumn they are to be returned to a cool house and wintered in a dry stove.
The turning of them outdoors to ripen their growth is the surest way to
obtain flowers, but they do not take on a free blooming habit until they
have attained some age. They are often called _Epiphyllum_, which name is,
however, properly restricted to the group next to be mentioned.

EPIPHYLLUM.--This name is now restricted to two or three dwarf branching
Brazilian epiphytal plants of extreme beauty, which agree with
_Phyllocactus_ in having the branches dilated into the form of fleshy
leaves, but differ in haying them divided into short truncate leaf-like
portions, which are articulated, that is to say, provided with a joint by
which they separate spontaneously; the margins are crenate or dentate, and
the flowers, which are large and showy, magenta or crimson, appear at the
apex of the terminal joints. In _E. truncatum_ the flowers have a very
different aspect from that of other _Cacti_, from the mouth of the tube
being oblique and the segments all reflexed at the tip. The short separate
pieces of which these plants are made up grow out of each other, so that
the branches may be said to resemble leaves joined together endwise.

RHIPSALIS, a genus of about 50 tropical species, mainly in Central and
South America, but a few in tropical Africa and Madagascar. It is a very
heterogeneous group, being fleshy-stemmed with a woody axis, the branches
being angular, winged, flattened or cylindrical, and the flowers small,
short-tubed, succeeded by small, round, pea-shaped berries. _Rhipsalis
Cassytha_, when seen laden with its white berries, bears some resemblance
to a branch of mistletoe. All the species are epiphytal in habit.

OPUNTIA, the prickly pear, or Indian fig cactus, is a large typical group,
comprising some 150 species, found in North America, the West Indies, and
warmer parts of South America, extending as far as Chile. In aspect they
are very distinct from any of the other groups. They are fleshy shrubs,
with rounded, woody stems, and numerous succulent branches, composed in
most of the species of separate joints or parts, which are much compressed,
often elliptic or suborbicular, dotted over in spiral lines with small,
fleshy, caducous leaves, in the axils of which are placed the areoles or
tufts of barbed or hooked spines of two forms. The flowers are mostly
yellow or reddish-yellow, and are succeeded by pear-shaped or egg-shaped
fruits, having a broad scar at the top, furnished on their soft, fleshy
rind with tufts of small spines. The sweet, juicy fruits of _O. vulgaris_
and _O. Tuna_ are much eaten under the name of prickly pears, and are
greatly esteemed for their cooling properties. Both these species are
extensively cultivated for their fruit in Southern Europe, the Canaries and
northern Africa; and the fruits are not unfrequently to be seen in Covent
Garden Market and in the shops of the leading fruiterers of the metropolis.
_O. vulgaris_ is hardy in the south of England.

The cochineal insect is nurtured on a species of _Opuntia_ (_O.
coccinellifera_), separated by some authors under the name of _Nopalea_,
and sometimes also on _O. Tuna_. Plantations of the nopal and the tuna,
which are called nopaleries, are established for the purpose of rearing
this insect, the _Coccus Cacti_, and these often contain as many as 50,000
plants. The females are placed on the plants about August, and in four
months the first crop of cochineal is gathered, two more being produced in
the course of the year. The native country of the insect is Mexico, and it
is there more or less cultivated; but the greater part of our supply comes
from Colombia and the Canary Islands.

PEIRESKIA ACULEATA, or Barbadoes gooseberry, the _Cactus peireskia_ of
Linnaeus, differs from the rest in having woody stems and leaf-bearing
branches, the leaves being somewhat fleshy, but otherwise of the ordinary
laminate character. The flowers are subpaniculate, white or yellowish. This
species is frequently used as a stock on which to graft other _Cacti_.
There are about a dozen species known of this genus, mainly Mexican.

CADALSO VAZQUEZ, JOSE (1741-1782), Spanish author, was born at Cadiz on the
8th of October 1741. Before completing his twentieth year he had travelled
through Italy, Germany, England, France and Portugal, and had studied the
literatures of these countries. On his return to Spain he entered the army
and rose to the rank of colonel. He was killed at the siege of Gibraltar,
on the 27th of February 1782. His first published work was a rhymed
tragedy, _Don Sancho Garcia, Conde de Castilla_ (1771). In the following
year he published his _Eruditos a la Violeta_, a prose satire on
superficial knowledge, which was very successful. In 1773 appeared a volume
of miscellaneous poems, _Ocios de mi juventud_, and after his death there
was found among his MSS. a series of fictitious letters in the style of the
_Lettres Persanes_; these were issued in 1793 under the title of _Cartas
marruecas_. A good edition of his works appeared at Madrid, in 3 vols.,
1823. This is supplemented by the _Obras ineditas_ (Paris, 1894) published
by R. Foulche-Delbosc.

[v.04 p.0927] CADAMOSTO (or CA DA MOSTO), ALVISE (1432-1477), a Venetian
explorer, navigator and writer, celebrated for his voyages in the
Portuguese service to West Africa. In 1454 he sailed from Venice for
Flanders, and, being detained by contrary winds off Cape St Vincent, was
enlisted by Prince Henry the Navigator among his explorers, and given
command of an expedition which sailed (22nd of March 1455) for the south.
Visiting the Madeira group and the Canary Islands (of both which he gives
an elaborate account, especially concerned with European colonization and
native customs), and coasting the West Sahara (whose tribes, trade and
trade-routes he likewise describes in detail), he arrived at the Senegal,
whose lower course had already, as he tells us, been explored by the
Portuguese 60 m. up. The negro lands and tribes south of the Senegal, and
especially the country and people of Budomel, a friendly chief reigning
about 50 m. beyond the river, are next treated with equal wealth of
interesting detail, and Cadamosto thence proceeded towards the Gambia,
which he ascended some distance (here also examining races, manners and
customs with minute attention), but found the natives extremely hostile,
and so returned direct to Portugal. Cadamosto expressly refers to the chart
he kept of this voyage. At the mouth of the Gambia he records an
observation of the "Southern Chariot" (Southern Cross). Next year (1456) he
went out again under the patronage of Prince Henry. Doubling Cape Blanco he
was driven out to sea by contrary winds, and thus made the first known
discovery of the Cape Verde Islands. Having explored Boavista and Santiago,
and found them uninhabited, he returned to the African mainland, and pushed
on to the Gambia, Rio Grande and Geba. Returning thence to Portugal, he
seems to have remained there till 1463, when he reappeared at Venice. He
died in 1477.

Besides the accounts of his two voyages, Cadamosto left a narrative of
Pedro de Cintra's explorations in 1461 (or 1462) to Sierre Leone and beyond
Cape Mesurado to El Mina and the Gold Coast; all these relations first
appeared in the 1507 Vicenza Collection of Voyages and Travels (the _Paesi
novamente retrovati et novo mondo da Alberico Vesputio Florentino_); they
have frequently since been reprinted and translated (_e.g._ Ital. text in
1508, 1512, 1519, 1521, 1550 (Ramusio), &c.; Lat. version, _Itinerarium
Portugallensium_, &c.,1508, 1532 (Grynaeus), &c.; Fr. _Sensuyt le nouveau
monde_, &c., 1516, 1521; German, _Newe unbekante Landte_, &c., 1508). See
also C. Schefer, _Relation des voyages ... de Ca' da Mosto_ (1895); R.H.
Major, _Henry the Navigator_ (1868), pp. 246-287; C.R. Beazley, _Henry the
Navigator_ (1895), pp. 261-288; Yule Oldham, _Discovery of the Cape Verde
Islands_ (1892), esp. pp. 4-15.

It may be noted that Antonio Uso di Mare (Antoniotto Ususmaris), the
Genoese, wrote his famous letter of the 12th of December 1455 (purporting
to record a meeting with the last surviving descendant of the
Genoese-Indian expedition of 1291, at or near the Gambia), after
accompanying Cadamosto to West Africa; see Beazley, _Dawn of Modern
Geography_ (1892), iii. 416-418.

CADASTRE (a French word from the Late Lat. _capitastrum_, a register of the
poll-tax), a register of the real property of a country, with details of
the area, the owners and the value. A "cadastral survey" is properly,
therefore, one which gives such information as the Domesday Book, but the
term is sometimes used loosely of the Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom
(1=2500), which is on sufficiently large a scale to give the area of every
field or piece of ground.

CADDIS-FLY and CADDIS-WORM, the name given to insects with a superficial
resemblance to moths, sometimes referred to the Neuroptera, sometimes to a
special order, the Trichoptera, in allusion to the hairy clothing of the
body and wings. Apart from this feature the Trichoptera also differ from
the typical Neuroptera in the relatively simple, mostly longitudinal
neuration of the wings, the absence or obsolescence of the mandibles and
the semi-haustellate nature of the rest of the mouth-parts. Although
caddis-flies are sometimes referred to several families, the differences
between the groups are of no great importance. Hence the insects may more
conveniently be regarded as constituting the single family _Phryganeidae_.
The larvae known as caddis-worms are aquatic. The mature females lay their
eggs in the water, and the newly-hatched larvae provide themselves with
cases made of various particles such as grains of sand, pieces of wood or
leaves stuck together with silk secreted from the salivary glands of the
insect. These cases differ greatly in structure and shape. Those of
_Phyrganea_ consist of bits of twigs or leaves cut to a suitable length and
laid side by side in a long spirally-coiled band, forming the wall of a
subcylindrical cavity. The cavity of the tube of _Helicopsyche_, composed
of grains of sand, is itself spirally coiled, so that the case exactly
resembles a small snail-shell in shape. One species of _Limnophilus_ uses
small but entire leaves; another, the shells of the pond-snail _Planorbis_;
another, pieces of stick arranged transversely with reference to the long
axis of the tube. To admit of the free inflow and outflow of currents of
water necessary for respiration, which is effected by means of filamentous
abdominal tracheal gills, the two ends of the tube are open. Sometimes the
cases are fixed, but more often portable. In the latter case the larva
crawls about the bottom of the water or up the stems of plants, with its
thickly-chitinized head and legs protruding from the larger orifice, while
it maintains a secure hold of the silk lining of the tube by means of a
pair of strong hooks at the posterior end of its soft defenceless abdomen.
Their food appears for the most part to be of a vegetable nature. Some
species, however, are alleged to be carnivorous, and a North American form
of the genus _Hydropsyche_ is said to spin around the mouth of its burrow a
silken net for the capture of small animal organisms living in the water.
Before passing into the pupal stage, the larva partially closes the orifice
of the tube with silk or pieces of stone loosely spun together and pervious
to water. Through this temporary protection the active pupa, which closely
resembles the mature insect, subsequently bites a way by means of its
strong mandibles, and rising to the surface of the water casts the pupal
integument and becomes sexually adult.

The above sketch may be regarded as descriptive of the life-history of a
great majority of species of caddis-flies. It is only necessary here to
mention one anomalous form, _Enoicyla pusilla_, in which the mature female
is wingless and the larva is terrestrial, living in moss or decayed leaves.

Caddis-flies are universally distributed. Geologically they are known to
date back to the Oligocene period, and wings believed to be referable to
them have been found in Liassic and Jurassic beds.

(R. I. P.)

CADDO, a confederacy of North American Indian tribes which gave its name to
the Caddoan stock, represented in the south by the Caddos, Wichita and
Kichai, and in the north by the Pawnee and Arikara tribes. The Caddos, now
reduced to some 500, settled in western Oklahoma, formerly ranged over the
Red River (Louisiana) country, in what is now Arkansas, northern Texas and
Oklahoma. The native name of the confederacy is Hasinai, corrupted by the
French into Asinais and Cenis. The Caddoan tribes were mostly agricultural
and sedentary, and to-day they are distinguished by their industry and
intelligence.

See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907).

CADE, JOHN (d. 1450), commonly called JACK CADE, English rebel and leader
of the rising of 1450, was probably an Irishman by birth, but the details
of his early life are very scanty. He seems to have resided for a time in
Sussex, to have fled from the country after committing a murder, and to
have served in the French wars. Returning to England, he settled in Kent
under the name of Aylmer and married a lady of good position. When the men
of Kent rose in rebellion in May 1450, they were led by a man who took the
name of Mortimer, and who has generally been regarded as identical with
Cade. Mr James Gairdner, however, considers it probable that Cade did not
take command of the rebels until after the skirmish at Sevenoaks on the
18th of June. At all events, it was Cade who led the insurgents from
Blackheath to Southwark, and under him they made their way into London on
the 3rd of July. A part of the populace was doubtless favourable to the
rebels, but the opposing party gained strength when Cade and his men began
to plunder. Having secured the execution of James Fiennes, Baron Say and
Sele, and of William Crowmer, sheriff of Kent, Cade and his followers
retired to Southwark, and on the 5th of July, after a fierce struggle on
London Bridge, the citizens prevented them from re-entering the city. Cade
then met the chancellor, John [v.04 p.0928] Kemp, archbishop of York, and
William of Wayneflete, bishop of Winchester, and terms of peace were
arranged. Pardons were drawn up, that for the leaders being in the name of
Mortimer. Cade, however, retained some of his men, and at this time, or a
day or two earlier, broke open the prisons in Southwark and released the
prisoners, many of whom joined his band. Having collected some booty, he
went to Rochester, made a futile attempt to capture Queenborough castle,
and then quarrelled with his followers over some plunder. On the 10th of
July a proclamation was issued against him in the name of Cade, and a
reward was offered for his apprehension. Escaping into Sussex he was
captured at Heathfield on the 12th. During the scuffle he had been severely
wounded, and on the day of his capture he died in the cart which was
conveying him to London. The body was afterwards beheaded and quartered,
and in 1451 Cade was attainted.

See Robert Fabyan, _The New Chronicles of England and France_, edited by H.
Ellis (London, 1811); William of Worcester, _Annales rerum Anglicarum_,
edited by J. Stevenson, (London, 1864); _An English Chronicle of the Reigns
of Richard II., Henry IV., Henry V. and Henry VI._, edited by J.S. Davies
(London, 1856); _Historical Collections of a Citizen of London_, edited by
J. Gairdner (London, 1876); _Three Fifteenth Century Chronicles_, edited by
J. Gairdner (London, 1880); J. Gairdner, Introduction to the _Paston
Letters_ (London, 1904); G. Kriehn, _The English Rising of 1450_
(Strassburg, 1892.)

CADENABBIA, a village of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Como, about 15
m. N.N.E. by steamer from the town of Como. It is situated on the W. shore
of the lake of Como, and owing to the great beauty of the scenery and of
the vegetation, and its sheltered situation, is a favourite spring and
autumn resort. The most famous of its villas is the Villa Carlotta, now the
property of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen, which contains marble reliefs by
Thorwaldsen, representing the triumph of Alexander, and statues by Canova.

CADENCE (through the Fr. from the Lat. _cadentia_, from _cadere_, to fall),
a falling or sinking, especially as applied to rhythmical or musical
sounds, as in the "fall" of the voice in speaking, the rhythm or measure of
verses, song or dance. In music, the word is used of the closing chords of
a musical phrase, which succeed one another in such a way as to produce,
first an expectation or suspense, and then an impression of finality,
indicating also the key strongly. "Cadenza," the Italian form of the same
word, is used of a free flourish in a vocal or instrumental composition,
introduced immediately before the close of a movement or at the end of the
piece. The object is to display the performer's technique, or to prevent
too abrupt a contrast between two movements. Cadenzas are usually left to
the improvisation of the performer, but are sometimes written in full by
the composer, or by some famous executant, as in the cadenza in Brahms's
_Violin Concerto_, written by Joseph Joachim.

CADER IDRIS ("the Seat of Idris"), the second most imposing mountain in
North Wales, standing in Merionethshire to the S. of Dolgelly, between the
broad estuaries of the Mawddach and the Dovey. It is so called in memory of
Idris Gawr, celebrated in the Triads as one of the three "Gwyn
Serenyddion," or "Happy Astronomers," of Wales, who is traditionally
supposed to have made his observations on this peak. Its loftiest point,
known as Pen-y-gader, rises to the height of 2914 ft., and in clear weather
commands a magnificent panorama of immense extent. The mountain is
everywhere steep and rocky, especially on its southern side, which falls
abruptly towards the Lake of Tal-y-llyn. Mention of Cader Idris and its
legends is frequent in Welsh literature, old and modern.

CADET (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. _capitettum_, a diminutive of
_caput_, head, through the Provencal form _capdet_), the head of an
inferior branch of a family, a younger son; particularly a military term
for an accepted candidate for a commission in the army or navy, who is
undergoing training to become an officer. This latter use of the term arose
in France, where it was applied to the younger sons of the _noblesse_ who
gained commissioned rank, not by serving in the ranks or by entering the
_ecoles militaires_, but by becoming attached to corps without pay but with
certain privileges. "Cadet Corps," in the British service, are bodies of
boys or youths organized, armed and trained on volunteer military lines.
Derived from "cadet," through the Scots form "cadee," comes "caddie," a
messenger-boy, and particularly one who carries clubs at golf, and also the
slang word "cad," a vulgar, ill-bred person.

CADGER (a word of obscure origin possibly connected with "catch"), a hawker
or pedlar, a carrier of farm produce to market. The word in this sense has
fallen into disuse, and now is used for a beggar or loafer, one who gets
his living in more or less questionable ways.

CADI (_qadi_), a judge in a _mahkama_ or Mahommedan ecclesiastical court,
in which decisions are rendered on the basis of the canon law of Islam
(_shari `a_). It is a general duty, according to canon law, upon a Moslem
community to judge legal disputes on this basis, and it is an individual
duty upon the ruler of the community to appoint a cadi to act for the
community. According to Shafi`ite law, such a cadi must be a male, free,
adult Moslem, intelligent, of unassailed character, able to see, hear and
write, learned in the Koran, the traditions, the Agreement, the differences
of the legal schools, acquainted with Arabic grammar and the exegesis of
the Koran. He must not sit in a mosque, except under necessity, but in some
open, accessible place. He must maintain a strictly impartial attitude of
body and mind, accept no presents from the people of his district, and
render judgment only when he is in a normal condition mentally and
physically. He may not engage in any business. He shall ride to the place
where he holds court, greeting the people on both sides. He shall visit the
sick and those returned from a journey, and attend funerals. On some of
these points the codes differ, and the whole is to be regarded as the ideal
qualification, built up theoretically by the canonists.

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