Book: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 4

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See MAHOMMEDAN LAW; also Juynboll, _De Mohammedaansche Wet_ (Leiden, 1903),
pp. 287 ff.; Sachau, _Muhammedanisches Recht_ (Berlin, 1897), pp. 687 ff.

(D. B. MA.)

CADILLAC, a city and the county seat of Wexford county, Michigan, U.S.A.,
on Lake Cadillac, about 95 m. N. by E. of Grand Rapids and about 85 m. N.W.
of Bay City. Pop. (1890) 4461; (1900) 5997, of whom 1676 were foreign-born;
(1904) 6893; (1910) 8375. It is served by the Ann Arbor and the Grand
Rapids & Indiana railways. Cadillac overlooks picturesque lake scenery, and
the good fishing for pike, pickerel and perch in the lake, and for brook
trout in streams near by, attracts many visitors. Among the city's chief
manufactures are hardwood lumber, iron, tables, crates and woodenware,
veneer, flooring and flour. Cadillac was settled in 1871, was incorporated
as a village under the name of Clam Lake in 1875, was chartered as a city
under its present name (from Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac) in 1877, and was
rechartered in 1895.

CADIZ, a town of the province of Negros Occidental, island of Negros,
Philippine Islands, on the N. coast, about 53 m. N.N.E. of Bacolod, the
capital. Pop. (1903) 16,429. Lumber products are manufactured in the town,
and a saw-mill here is said to be the largest in the Philippines.

CADIZ (_Cadiz_), a maritime province in the extreme south of Spain, formed
in 1833 of districts taken from the province of Seville; and bounded on the
N. by Seville, E. by Malaga, S.E. by the Mediterranean sea, S. by the
Straits of Gibraltar, and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 452,659;
area 2834 sq. m.; inclusive, in each case, of the town and territory of
Ceuta, on the Moroccan coast, which belong, for administrative purposes, to
Cadiz. The sea-board of Cadiz possesses several features of exceptional
interest. On the Atlantic littoral, the broad Guadalquivir estuary marks
the frontier of Seville; farther south, the river Guadalete, which waters
the northern districts, falls into the magnificent double bay of Cadiz;
farther south again, is Cape Trafalgar, famous for the British naval
victory of 1805. Near Trafalgar, the river Barbate issues into the straits
of Gibraltar, after receiving several small tributaries, which combine with
it to form, near its mouth, the broad and marshy Laguna de la Janda. Punta
Marroqui, on the straits, is the southernmost promontory of the European
mainland. The [v.04 p.0929] most conspicuous feature of the east coast is
Algeciras Bay, overlooked by the rock and fortress of Gibraltar. The river
Guadiaro, which drains the eastern highlands, enters the Mediterranean
close to the frontier of Malaga. In the interior there is a striking
contrast between the comparatively level western half of Cadiz and the very
picturesque mountain ranges of the eastern half, which are well wooded and
abound in game. The whole region known as the Campo de Gibraltar is of this
character; but it is in the north-east that the summits are most closely
massed together, and attain their greatest altitudes in the Cerro de San
Cristobal (5630 ft.) and the Sierra del Pinar (5413 ft.).

The climate is generally mild and temperate, some parts of the coast only
being unhealthy owing to a marshy soil. Severe drought is not unusual, and
it was largely this cause, together with want of capital, and the
dependence of the peasantry on farming and fishing, that brought about the
distress so prevalent early in the 20th century. The manufactures are
insignificant compared with the importance of the natural products of the
soil, especially wines and olives. Jerez de la Frontera (Xeres) is famous
for the manufacture and export of sherry. The fisheries furnish about 2500
tons of fish per annum, one-fifth part of which is salted for export and
the rest consumed in Spain. There are no important mines, but a
considerable amount of salt is obtained by evaporation of sea-water in pans
near Cadiz, San Fernando, Puerto Real and Santa Maria. The railway from
Seville passes through Jerez de la Frontera to Cadiz and San Fernando, and
another line, from Granada, terminates at Algeciras; but at the beginning
of the 20th century, although it was proposed to construct railways from
Jerez inland to Grazalema and coastwise from San Fernando to Tarifa,
travellers who wished to visit these places were compelled to use the
old-fashioned diligence, over indifferent roads, or to go by sea. The
principal seaports are, after Cadiz the capital (pop. 1900, 69,382),
Algeciras (13,302), La Linea (31,862), Puerto de Santa Maria (20,120),
Puerto Real (10,535), the naval station of San Fernando (29,635), San Lucar
(23,883) and Tarifa (11,723); the principal inland towns are Arcos de la
Frontera (13,926), Chiclana (10,868), Jerez de la Frontera (63,473), Medina
Sidonia (11,040), and Vejer de la Frontera (11,298). These are all
described in separate articles. Grazalema (5587), Jimena de la Frontera
(7549), and San Roque (8569) are less important towns with some trade in
leather, cork, wine and farm produce. They all contain many Moorish
antiquities, and Grazalema probably represents the Roman _Lacidulermium_.
(See also ANDALUSIA.)

CADIZ (in Lat. _Gades_, and formerly called _Cales_ by the English), the
capital and principal seaport of the Spanish province of Cadiz; on the Bay
of Cadiz, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, in 36 deg. 27' N. and 6 deg. 12' W., 94
m. by rail S. of Seville. Pop. (1900) 69,382. Cadiz is built on the
extremity of a tongue of land, projecting about 5 m. into the sea, in a
north-westerly direction from the Isla de Leon. Its noble bay, more than 30
m. in circuit, and almost entirely land-locked by the isthmus and the
headlands which lie to the north-east, has principally contributed to its
commercial importance. The outer bay stretches from the promontory and town
of Rota to the mouth of the river Guadalete; the inner bay, protected by
the forts of Matagorda and Puntales, affords generally good anchorage, and
contains a harbour formed by a projecting mole, where vessels of small
burden may discharge. The entrance to the bays is rendered somewhat
dangerous by the low shelving rocks (Cochinos and Las Puercas) which
encumber the passage, and by the shifting banks of mud deposited by the
Guadalete and the Rio Santi Petri, a broad channel separating the Isla de
Leon from the mainland. At the mouth of this channel is the village of
Caracca; close beside it is the important naval arsenal of San Fernando
(_q.v._); and on the isthmus are the defensive works known as the
Cortadura, or Fort San Fernando, and the well-frequented sea-bathing
establishments.

From its almost insular position Cadiz enjoys a mild and serene climate.
The _Medina_, or land-wind, so-called because it blows from the direction
of Medina Sidonia, prevails during the winter; the moisture-laden
_Virazon_, a westerly sea-breeze, sets in with the spring. The mean annual
temperature is about 64 deg. F., while the mean summer and winter temperatures
vary only about 10 deg. above and below this point; but the damp atmosphere is
very oppressive in summer, and its unhealthiness is enhanced by the
inadequate drainage and the masses of rotting seaweed piled along the
shore. The high death-rate, nearly 45 per thousand, is also due to the bad
water-supply, the water being either collected in cisterns from the tops of
the houses, or brought at great expense from Santa Maria on the opposite
coast by an aqueduct nearly 30 m. long. An English company started a
waterworks in Cadiz about 1875, but came to grief through the incapacity of
the population to appreciate its necessity.

The city, which is 6 or 7 m. in circumference, is surrounded by a wall with
five gates, one of which communicates with the isthmus. Seen from a
distance off the coast, it presents a magnificent display of snow-white
turrets rising majestically from the sea; and for the uniformity and
elegance of its buildings, it must certainly be ranked as one of the finest
cities of Spain, although, being hemmed in on all sides, its streets and
squares are necessarily contracted. Every house annually receives a coating
of whitewash, which, when it is new, produces a disagreeable glare. The
city is distinguished by its somewhat deceptive air of cleanliness, its
quiet streets, where no wheeled traffic passes, and its lavish use of white
Italian marble. But the most characteristic feature of Cadiz is the marine
promenades, fringing the city all round between the ramparts and the sea,
especially that called the _Alameda_, on the eastern side, commanding a
view of the shipping in the bay and the ports on the opposite shore. The
houses are generally lofty and surmounted by turrets and flat roofs in the
Moorish style.

Cadiz is the see of a bishop, who is suffragan to the archbishop of
Seville, but its chief conventual and monastic institutions have been
suppressed. Of its two cathedrals, one was originally erected by Alphonso
X. of Castile (1252-1284), and rebuilt after 1596; the other, begun in
1722, was completed between 1832 and 1838. Under the high altar of the old
cathedral rises the only freshwater spring in Cadiz. The chief secular
buildings include the Hospicio, or Casa de Misericordia, adorned with a
marble portico, and having an interior court with Doric colonnades; the
bull-ring, with room for 12,000 spectators; the two theatres, the prison,
the custom-house, and the lighthouse of San Sebastian on the western side
rising 172 ft. from the rock on which it stands. Besides the Hospicio
already mentioned, which sometimes contains 1000 inmates, there are
numerous other charitable institutions, such as the women's hospital, the
foundling institution, the admirable Hospicio de San Juan de Dios for men,
and the lunatic asylum. Gratuitous instruction is given to a large number
of children, and there are several mathematical and commercial academies,
maintained by different commercial corporations, a nautical school, a
school of design, a theological seminary and a flourishing medical school.
The museum is filled for the most part with Roman and Carthaginian coins
and other antiquities; the academy contains a valuable collection of
pictures. In the church of Santa Catalina, which formerly belonged to the
Capuchin convent, now secularized, there is an unfinished picture of the
marriage of St Catherine, by Murillo, who met his death by falling from the
scaffold on which he was painting it (3rd of April 1682).

Cadiz no longer ranks among the first marine cities of the world. Its
harbour works are insufficient and antiquated, though a scheme for their
improvement was adopted in 1903; its communications with the mainland
consist of a road and a single line of railway; its inhabitants, apart from
foreign residents and a few of the more enterprising merchants, rest
contented with such prosperity as a fine natural harbour and an unsurpassed
geographical situation cannot fail to confer. Several great shipping lines
call here; shipbuilding yards and various factories exist on the mainland;
and there is a considerable trade in the exportation of wine, principally
sherry from Jerez, salt, olives, figs, canary-seed and ready-made corks;
and in the importation of fuel, iron and machinery, building materials,
American oak staves for casks, &c. In 1904, 2753 ships of 1,745,588 tons
[v.04 p.0930] entered the port. But local trade, though still considerable,
remains stationary if it does not actually recede. Its decline, originally
due to the Napoleonic wars and the acquisition of independence by many
Spanish colonies early in the 19th century, was already recognised, and an
attempt made to check it in 1828, when the Spanish government declared
Cadiz a free warehousing port; but this valuable privilege was withdrawn in
1832. Among the more modern causes of depression have been the rivalry of
Gibraltar and Seville; the decreasing demand for sherry; and the disasters
of the Spanish-American war of 1898, which almost ruined local commerce
with Cuba and Porto Rico.

_History._--Cadiz represents the Sem. _Agadir_, _Gadir_, or _Gaddir_
("stronghold") of the Carthaginians, the Gr. _Gadeira_, and the Lat.
_Gades_. Tradition ascribes its foundation to Phoenician merchants from
Tyre, as early as 1100 B.C.; and in the 7th century it had already become
the great mart of the west for amber and tin from the Cassiterides
(_q.v._). About 501 B.C. it was occupied by the Carthaginians, who made it
their base for the conquest of southern Iberia, and in the 3rd century for
the equipment of the armaments with which Hannibal undertook to destroy the
power of Rome. But the loyalty of Gades, already weakened by trade rivalry
with Carthage, gave way after the second Punic War. Its citizens welcomed
the victorious Romans, and assisted them in turn to fit out an expedition
against Carthage. Thenceforward, its rapidly-growing trade in dried fish
and meat, and in all the produce of the fertile Baetis (Guadalquivir)
valley, attracted many Greek settlers; while men of learning, such as
Pytheas in the 4th century B.C., Polybius and Artemidorus of Ephesus in the
2nd, and Posidonius in the 1st, came to study the ebb and flow of its
tides, unparalleled in the Mediterranean. C. Julius Caesar conferred the
_civitas_ of Rome on all its citizens in 49 B.C.; and, not long after L.
Cornelius Balbus Minor built what was called the "New City," constructed
the harbour which is now known as Puerto Real, and spanned the strait of
Santi Petri with the bridge which unites the Isla de Leon with the
mainland, and is now known as the Puente de Zuazo, after Juan Sanchez de
Zuazo, who restored it in the 15th century. Under Augustus, when it was the
residence of no fewer than 500 _equites_, a total only surpassed in Rome
and Padua, Gades was made a _municipium_ with the name of _Augusta Urbs
Gaditana_, and its citizens ranked next to those of Rome. In the 1st
century A.D. it was the birthplace or home of several famous authors,
including Lucius Columella, poet and writer on husbandry; but it was more
renowned for gaiety and luxury than for learning. Juvenal and Martial write
of _Jocosae Gades_, "Cadiz the Joyous," as naturally as the modern
Andalusian speaks of _Cadiz la Joyosa_; and throughout the Roman world its
cookery and its dancing-girls were famous. In the 5th century, however, the
overthrow of Roman dominion in Spain by the Visigoths involved Cadiz in
destruction. A few fragments of masonry, submerged under the sea, are
almost all that remains of the original city. Moorish rule over the port,
which was renamed _Jezirat-Kadis_, lasted from 711 until 1262, when Cadiz
was captured, rebuilt and repeopled by Alphonso X. of Castile. Its renewed
prosperity dates from the discovery of America in 1492. As the headquarters
of the Spanish treasure fleets, it soon recovered its position as the
wealthiest port of western Europe, and consequently it was a favourite
point of attack for the enemies of Spain. During the 16th century it
repelled a series of raids by the Barbary corsairs; in 1587 all the
shipping in its harbour was burned by the English squadron under Sir
Francis Drake; in 1596 the fleet of the earl of Essex and Lord Charles
Howard sacked the city, and destroyed forty merchant vessels and thirteen
warships. This disaster necessitated the rebuilding of Cadiz on a new plan.
Its recovered wealth tempted the duke of Buckingham to promote the
fruitless expedition to Cadiz of 1626; thirty years later Admiral Blake
blockaded the harbour in an endeavour to intercept the treasure fleet; and
in 1702 another attack was made by the British under Sir George Rooke and
the duke of Ormonde. During the 18th century the wealth of Cadiz became
greater than ever; from 1720 to 1765, when it enjoyed a monopoly of the
trade with Spanish America, the city annually imported gold and silver to
the value of about L5,000,000. With the closing years of the century,
however, it entered upon a period of misfortune. From February 1797 to
April 1798 it was blockaded by the British fleet, after the battle of Cape
St Vincent; and in 1800 it was bombarded by Nelson. In 1808 the citizens
captured a French squadron which was imprisoned by the British fleet in the
inner bay. From February 1810 until the duke of Wellington raised the siege
in August 1812, Cadiz resisted the French forces sent to capture it; and
during these two years it served as the capital of all Spain which could
escape annexation by Napoleon. Here, too, the Cortes met and promulgated
the famous Liberal constitution of March 1812. To secure a renewal of this
constitution, the citizens revolted in 1820; the revolution spread
throughout Spain; the king, Ferdinand VII., was imprisoned at Cadiz, which
again became the seat of the Cortes; and foreign intervention alone checked
the movement towards reform. A French army, under the duc d'Angouleme,
seized Cadiz in 1823, secured the release of Ferdinand and suppressed
Liberalism. In 1868 the city was the centre of the revolution which
effected the dethronement of Queen Isabella.

See _Sevilla y Cadiz, sus monumentos y artes, su naturaleza e historia_, an
illustrated volume in the series "Espana," by P. de Madrazo (Barcelona,
1884); _Recuerdos Gaditanos_, a very full history of local affairs, by J.M.
Leon y Dominguez (Cadiz, 1897); _Historia de Cadiz y de su provincia desde
los remotos tiempos hasta_ 1824, by A. de Castro (Cadiz, 1858); and
_Descripcion historico-artistica de la catedral de Cadiz_, by J. de Urrutia
(Cadiz, 1843).

CADMIUM (symbol Cd, atomic weight 112.4 (O=16)), a metallic element,
showing a close relationship to zinc, with which it is very frequently
associated. It was discovered in 1817 by F. Stromeyer in a sample of zinc
carbonate from which a specimen of zinc oxide was obtained, having a yellow
colour, although quite free from iron; Stromeyer showing that this
coloration was due to the presence of the oxide of a new metal.
Simultaneously Hermann, a German chemical manufacturer, discovered the new
metal in a specimen of zinc oxide which had been thought to contain
arsenic, since it gave a yellow precipitate, in acid solution, on the
addition of sulphuretted hydrogen. This supposition was shown to be
incorrect, and the nature of the new element was ascertained.

Cadmium does not occur naturally in the uncombined condition, and only one
mineral is known which contains it in any appreciable quantity, namely,
greenockite, or cadmium sulphide, found at Greenock and at Bishopton in
Scotland, and in Bohemia and Pennsylvania. It is, however, nearly always
found associated with zinc blende, and with calamine, although only in
small quantities.

The metal is usually obtained from the flue-dust (produced during the first
three or four hours working of a zinc distillation) which is collected in
the sheet iron cones or adapters of the zinc retorts. This is mixed with
small coal, and when redistilled gives an enriched dust, and by repeating
the process and distilling from cast iron retorts the metal is obtained. It
can be purified by solution in hydrochloric acid and subsequent
precipitation by metallic zinc.

Cadmium is a white metal, possessing a bluish tinge, and is capable of
taking a high polish; on breaking, it shows a distinct fibrous fracture. By
sublimation in a current of hydrogen it can be crystallized in the form of
regular octahedra; it is slightly harder than tin, but is softer than zinc,
and like tin, emits a crackling sound when bent. It is malleable and can be
rolled out into sheets. The specific gravity of the metal is 8.564, this
value being slightly increased after hammering; its specific heat is 0.0548
(R. Bunsen), it melts at 310-320 deg. C. and boils between 763-772 deg. C. (T.
Carnelley), forming a deep yellow vapour. The cadmium molecule, as shown by
determinations of the density of its vapour, is monatomic. The metal unites
with the majority of the heavy metals to form alloys; some of these, the
so-called fusible alloys, find a useful application from the fact that they
possess a low melting-point. It also forms amalgams with mercury, and on
this account has been employed in dentistry for the purpose of stopping (or
filling) [v.04 p.0931] teeth. The metal is quite permanent in dry air, but
in moist air it becomes coated with a superficial layer of the oxide; it
burns on heating to redness, forming a brown coloured oxide; and is readily
soluble in mineral acids with formation of the corresponding salts. Cadmium
vapour decomposes water at a red heat, with liberation of hydrogen, and
formation of the oxide of the metal.

Cadmium oxide, CdO, is a brown powder of specific gravity 6.5, which can be
prepared by heating the metal in air or in oxygen; or by ignition of the
nitrate or carbonate; by heating the metal to a white heat in a current of
oxygen it is obtained as a dark red crystalline sublimate. It does not melt
at a white heat, and is easily reduced to the metal by heating in a current
of hydrogen or with carbon. It is a basic oxide, dissolving readily in
acids, with the formation of salts, somewhat analogous to those of zinc.

Cadmium hydroxide, Cd(OH)_2, is obtained as a white precipitate by adding
potassium hydroxide to a solution of any soluble cadmium salt. It is
decomposed by heat into the oxide and water, and is soluble in ammonia but
not in excess of dilute potassium hydroxide; this latter property serves to
distinguish it from zinc hydroxide.

The chloride, CdCl_2, bromide, CdBr_2, and iodide, CdI_2, are also known,
cadmium iodide being sometimes used in photography, as it is one of the few
iodides which are soluble in alcohol. Cadmium chloride and iodide have been
shown to behave in an anomalous way in aqueous solution (W. Hittorf, _Pogg.
Ann._, 1859, 106, 513), probably owing to the formation of complex ions;
the abnormal behaviour apparently diminishing as the solution becomes more
and more dilute, until, at very high dilutions the salts are ionized in the
normal manner.

Cadmium sulphate, CdSO_4, is known in several hydrated forms; being
deposited, on spontaneous evaporation of a concentrated aqueous solution,
in the form of large monosymmetric crystals of composition 3CdSO_4.8H_2O,
whilst a boiling saturated solution, to which concentrated sulphuric acid
has been added, deposits crystals of composition CdSO_4.H_2O. It is largely
used for the purpose of making standard electric cells, such for example as
the Weston cell.

Cadmium sulphide, CdS, occurs naturally as greenockite (_q.v._), and can be
artificially prepared by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through acid
solutions of soluble cadmium salts, when it is precipitated as a pale
yellow amorphous solid. It is used as a pigment (cadmium yellow), for it
retains its colour in an atmosphere containing sulphuretted hydrogen; it
melts at a white heat, and on cooling solidifies to a lemon-yellow
micaceous mass.

Normal cadmium carbonates are unknown, a white precipitate of variable
composition being obtained on the addition of solutions of the alkaline
carbonates to soluble cadmium salts.

Cadmium nitrate, Cd(NO_3)_2.4H_2O, is a deliquescent salt, which may be
obtained by dissolving either the metal, or its oxide or carbonate in
dilute nitric acid. It crystallizes in needles and is soluble in alcohol.

Cadmium salts can be recognized by the brown incrustation which is formed
when they are heated on charcoal in the oxidizing flame of the blowpipe;
and also by the yellow precipitate formed when sulphuretted hydrogen is
passed though their acidified solutions. This precipitate is insoluble in
cold dilute acids, in ammonium sulphide, and in solutions of the caustic
alkalis, a behaviour which distinguishes it from the yellow sulphides of
arsenic and tin. Cadmium is estimated quantitatively by conversion into the
oxide, being precipitated from boiling solutions by the addition of sodium
carbonate, the carbonate thus formed passing into the oxide on ignition. It
can also be determined as sulphide, by precipitation with sulphuretted
hydrogen, the precipitated sulphide being dried at 100 deg. C. and weighed.

The atomic weight of cadmium was found by O.W. Huntington (_Berichte_,
1882, 15, p. 80), from an analysis of the pure bromide, to be 111.9. H.N.
Morse and H.C. Jones (_Amer. Chem. Journ._, 1892, 14, p. 261) by conversion
of cadmium into the oxalate and then into oxide, obtained values ranging
from 111.981 to 112.05, whilst W.S. Lorimer and E.F. Smith (_Zeit. fuer
anorg. Chem._, 1891, 1, p. 364), by the electrolytic reduction of cadmium
oxide in potassium cyanide solution, obtained as a mean value 112.055. The
atomic weight of cadmium has been revised by G.P. Baxter and M.A. Hines
(_Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc._, 1905, 27, p. 222), by determinations of the
ratio of cadmium chloride to silver chloride, and of the amount of silver
required to precipitate cadmium chloride. The mean value obtained was
112.469 (Ag=107.93). The mean value 112.467 was obtained by Baxter, Hines
and Frevert (ibid., 1906, 28, p. 770) by analysing cadmium bromide.

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