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(P. A. K.)

BULGARUS, an Italian jurist of the 12th century, born at Bologna, sometimes
erroneously called Bulgarinus, which was properly the name of a jurist of
the 15th century. He was the most celebrated of the famous "Four Doctors"
of the law school of that university, and was regarded as the Chrysostom of
the Gloss-writers, being frequently designated by the title of the "Golden
Mouth" (_os aureum_). He died in 1166 A.D., at a very advanced age. Popular
tradition represents all the Four Doctors (Bulgarus, Martinus Gosia, Hugo
de Porta Ravennate and Jacobus de Boragine) as pupils of Irnerius (_q.v._),
but while there is no insuperable difficulty in point of time in accepting
this tradition as far as regards Bulgarus, Savigny considers the general
tradition inadmissible as regards the others. Martinus Gosia and Bulgarus
were the chiefs of two opposite schools at Bologna, corresponding in many
respects to the Proculians and Sabinians of Imperial Rome, Martinus being
at the head of a school which accommodated the law to what his opponents
styled the equity of "the purse" (_aequitas bursalis_), whilst Bulgarus
adhered more closely to the letter of the law. The school of Bulgarus
ultimately prevailed, and it numbered amongst its adherents Joannes
Bassianus, Azo and Accursius, each of whom in his turn exercised a
commanding influence over the course of legal studies at Bologna. Bulgarus
took the leading part amongst the Four Doctors at the diet of Roncaglia in
1158, and was one of the most trusted advisers of the emperor Frederick I.
His most celebrated work is his commentary _De Regulis Juris_, which was at
one time printed amongst the writings of Placentius, but has been properly
reassigned to its true author by Cujacius, upon the internal evidence
contained in the additions annexed to it, which are undoubtedly from the
pen of Placentinus. This [v.04 p.0787] _Commentary_, which is the earliest
extant work of its kind emanating from the school of the Gloss-writers, is,
according to Savigny, a model specimen of the excellence of the method
introduced by Irnerius, and a striking example of the brilliant results
which had been obtained in a short space of time by a constant and
exclusive study of the sources of law.

BULL, GEORGE (1634-1710), English divine, was born at Wells on the 25th of
March 1634, and educated at Tiverton school, Devonshire. He entered Exeter
College, Oxford, in 1647, but had to leave in 1649 in consequence of his
refusal to take the oath of allegiance to the Commonwealth. He was ordained
privately by Bishop Skinner in 1655. His first benefice held was that of St
George's near Bristol, from which he rose successively to be rector of
Suddington in Gloucestershire (1658), prebendary of Gloucester (1678),
archdeacon of Llandaff (1686), and in 1705 bishop of St David's. He died on
the 17th of February 1710. During the time of the Commonwealth he adhered
to the forms of the Church of England, and under James II. preached
strenuously against Roman Catholicism. His works display great erudition
and powerful thinking. The _Harmonia Apostolica_ (1670) is an attempt to
show the fundamental agreement between the doctrines of Paul and James with
regard to justification. The _Defensio Fidei Nicenae_ (1685), his greatest
work, tries to show that the doctrine of the Trinity was held by the
ante-Nicene fathers of the church, and retains its value as a
thorough-going examination of all the pertinent passages in early church
literature. The _Judicium Ecclesiae Catholicae_ (1694) and _Primitiva et
Apostolica Traditio_ (1710) won high praise from Bossuet and other French
divines. Following on Bossuet's criticisms of the _Judicium_, Bull wrote a
treatise on _The Corruptions of the Church of Rome_, which became very
popular.

The best edition of Bull's works is that in 7 vols., published at Oxford by
the Clarendon Press, under the superintendence of E. Burton, in 1827. This
edition contains the _Life_ by Robert Nelson. The _Harmonia, Defensio_ and
_Judicium_ are translated in the Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology
(Oxford, 1842-1855).

BULL, JOHN (c. 1562-1628), English composer and organist, was born in
Somersetshire about 1562. After being organist in Hereford cathedral, he
joined the Chapel Royal in 1585, and in the next year became a Mus. Bac. of
Oxford. In 1591 he was appointed organist in Queen Elizabeth's chapel in
succession to Blitheman, from whom he had received his musical education.
In 1592 he received the degree of doctor of music at Cambridge University;
and in 1596 he was made music professor at Gresham College, London. As he
was unable to lecture in Latin according to the foundation-rules of that
college, the executors of Sir Thomas Gresham made a dispensation in his
favour by permitting him to lecture in English. He gave his first lecture
on the 6th of October 1597. In 1601 Bull went abroad. He visited France and
Germany, and was everywhere received with the respect due to his talents.
Anthony Wood tells an impossible story of how at St Omer Dr Bull performed
the feat of adding, within a few hours, forty parts to a composition
already written in forty parts. Honourable employments were offered to him
by various continental princes; but he declined them, and returned to
England, where he was given the freedom of the Merchant Taylors' Company in
1606. He played upon a small pair of organs before King James I. on the
16th of July 1607, in the hall of the Company, and he seems to have been
appointed one of the king's organists in that year. In the same year he
resigned his Gresham professorship and married Elizabeth Walter. In 1613 he
again went to the continent on account of his health, obtaining a post as
one of the organists in the arch-duke's chapel at Brussels. In 1617 he was
appointed organist to the cathedral of Notre Dame at Antwerp, and he died
in that city on the 12th or 13th of March 1628. Little of his music has
been published, and the opinions of critics differ much as to its merits
(see Dr Willibald Nagel's _Geschichte der Musik in England_, ii. (1897), p.
155, &c.; and Dr Seiffert's _Geschichte der Klaviermusik_ (1899), p. 54,
&c.). Contemporary writers speak in the highest terms of Bull's skill as a
performer on the organ and the virginals, and there is no doubt that he
contributed much to the development of harpsichord music. Jan Swielinck
(1562-1621), the great organist of Amsterdam, did not regard his work on
composition as complete without placing in it a canon by John Bull, and the
latter wrote a fantasia upon a fugue of Swielinck. For the ascription to
Bull of the composition of the British national anthem, see NATIONAL
ANTHEMS. Good modern reprints, _e.g._ of the Fitzwilliam _Virginal-Book_,
"The King's Hunting Jig," and one or two other pieces, are in the
repertories of modern pianists from Rubinstein onwards.

BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (1810-1880), Norwegian violinist, was born in Bergen,
Norway, on the 5th of February 1810. At first a pupil of the violinist
Paulsen, and subsequently self-taught, he was intended for the church, but
failed in his examinations in 1828 and became a musician, directing the
philharmonic and dramatic societies at Bergen. In 1829 he went to Cassel,
on a visit to Spohr, who gave him no encouragement. He now began to study
law, but on going to Paris he came under the influence of Paganini, and
definitely adopted the career of a violin virtuoso. He made his first
appearance in company with Ernst and Chopin at a concert of his own in
Paris in 1832. Successful tours in Italy and England followed soon
afterwards, and he was not long in obtaining European celebrity by his
brilliant playing of his own pieces and arrangements. His first visit to
the United States lasted from 1843 to 1845, and on his return to Norway he
formed a scheme for the establishment of a Norse theatre in Bergen; this
became an accomplished fact in 1850; but in consequence of harassing
business complications he went again to America. During this visit
(1852-1857) he bought 125,000 acres in Potter county, Pennsylvania, for a
Norwegian colony, which was to have been called Oleana after his name; but
his title turned out to be fraudulent, and the troubles he went through in
connexion with the undertaking were enough to affect his health very
seriously, though not to hinder him for long from the exercise of his
profession. Another attempt to found an academy of music in Christiania had
no permanent result. In 1836 he had married Alexandrine Felicie Villeminot,
the grand-daughter of a lady to whom he owed much at the beginning of his
musical career in Paris; she died in 1862. In 1870 he married Sara C.
Thorpe of Wisconsin; henceforth he confined himself to the career of a
violinist. He died at Lysoe, near Bergen, on the 17th of August 1880. Ole
Bull's "polacca guerriera" and many of his other violin pieces, among them
two concertos, are interesting to the virtuoso, and his fame rests upon his
prodigious technique. The memoir published by his widow in 1886 contains
many illustrations of a career that was exceptionally brilliant; it gives a
picture of a strong individuality, which often found expression in a
somewhat boisterous form of practical humour.

There is a fountain and portrait statue to his memory in the Ole Bulls
Plads in Bergen.

BULL, (1) The male of animals belonging to the section _Bovina_ of the
family _Bovidae_ (_q.v._), particularly the uncastrated male of the
domestic ox (_Bos taurus_). (See CATTLE.) The word, which is found in M.E.
as _bole, bolle_ (cf. Ger. _Bulle_, and Dutch _bul_ or _bol_), is also used
of the males of other animals of large size, _e.g._ the elephant, whale,
&c. The O.E. diminutive form _bulluc_, meaning originally a young bull, or
bull calf, survives in bullock, now confined to a young castrated male ox
kept for slaughter for beef.

On the London and New York stock exchanges "bull" and "bear" are
correlative technical slang terms. A "bull" is one who "buys for a rise,"
_i.e._ he buys stocks or securities, grain or other commodities (which,
however, he never intends to take up), in the hope that before the date on
which he must take delivery he will be able to sell the stocks, &c., at a
higher price, taking as a profit the difference between the buying and
selling price. A "bear" is the reverse of a "bull." He is one who "sells
for a fall," _i.e._ he sells stock, &c., which he does not actually
possess, in the hope of buying it at a lower price before the time at which
he has contracted to deliver (see ACCOUNT; STOCK EXCHANGE). The word
"bull," according to the _New English Dictionary_, was used in this sense
as early as the beginning of the 18th century. The origin of the use is not
known, though it is tempting to connect it with the fable of the frog and
the bull.

[v.04 p.0788] The term "bull's eye" is applied to many circular objects,
and particularly to the boss or protuberance left in the centre of a sheet
of blown glass. This when cut off was formerly used for windows in small
leaded panes. The French term _oeil de boeuf_ is used of a circular window.
Other circular objects to which the word is applied are the centre of a
target or a shot that hits the central division of the target, a
plano-convex lens in a microscope, a lantern with a convex glass in it, a
thick circular piece of glass let into the deck or side of a ship, &c., for
lighting the interior, a ring-shaped block grooved round the outer edge,
and with a hole through the centre through which a rope can be passed, and
also a small lurid cloud which in certain latitudes presages a hurricane.

(2) The use of the word "bull," for a verbal blunder, involving a
contradiction in terms, is of doubtful origin. In this sense it is used
with a possible punning reference to papal bulls in Milton's _True
Religion_, "and whereas the Papist boasts himself to be a Roman Catholick,
it is a mere contradiction, one of the Pope's Bulls, as if he should say a
universal particular, a Catholick schismatick." Probably this use may be
traced to a M.E. word _bul_, first found in the _Cursor Mundi_, c. 1300, in
the sense of falsehood, trickery, deceit; the _New English Dictionary_
compares an O.Fr. _boul_, _boule_ or _bole_, in the same sense. Although
modern associations connect this type of blunder with the Irish, possibly
owing to the many famous "bulls" attributed to Sir Boyle Roche (_q.v._),
the early quotations show that in the 17th century, when the meaning now
attached to the word begins, no special country was credited with them.

(3) _Bulla_ (Lat for "bubble"), which gives us another "bull" in English,
was the term used by the Romans for any boss or stud, such as those on
doors, sword-belts, shields and boxes. It was applied, however, more
particularly to an ornament, generally of gold, a round or heart-shaped box
containing an amulet, worn suspended from the neck by children of noble
birth until they assumed the _toga virilis_, when it was hung up and
dedicated to the household gods. The custom of wearing the bulla, which was
regarded as a charm against sickness and the evil eye, was of Etruscan
origin. After the Second Punic War all children of free birth were
permitted to wear it; but those who did not belong to a noble or wealthy
family were satisfied with a bulla of leather. Its use was only permitted
to grown-up men in the case of generals who celebrated a triumph. Young
girls (probably till the time of their marriage), and even favourite
animals, also wore it (see Ficoroni, _La Bolla d' Oro_, 1732; Yates,
_Archaeological Journal_, vi., 1849; viii., 1851). In ecclesiastical and
medieval Latin, _bulla_ denotes the seal of oval or circular form, bearing
the name and generally the image of its owner, which was attached to
official documents. A metal was used instead of wax in the warm countries
of southern Europe. The best-known instances are the papal _bullae_, which
have given their name to the documents (bulls) to which they are attached.
(See DIPLOMATIC; SEALS; CURIA ROMANA; GOLDEN BULL.)

BULLER, CHARLES (1806-1848), English politician, son of Charles Buller (d.
1848), a member of a well-known Cornish family (see below), was born in
Calcutta on the 6th of August 1806; his mother, a daughter of General
William Kirkpatrick, was an exceptionally talented woman. He was educated
at Harrow, then privately in Edinburgh by Thomas Carlyle, and afterwards at
Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming a barrister in 1831. Before this date,
however, he had succeeded his father as member of parliament for West Looe;
after the passing of the Reform Bill of 1832 and the consequent
disenfranchisement of this borough, he was returned to parliament by the
voters of Liskeard. He retained this seat until he died in London on the
29th of November 1848, leaving behind him, so Charles Greville says, "a
memory cherished for his delightful social qualities and a vast credit for
undeveloped powers." An eager reformer and a friend of John Stuart Mill,
Buller voted for the great Reform Bill, favoured other progressive
measures, and presided over the committee on the state of the records and
the one appointed to inquire into the state of election law in Ireland in
1836. In 1838 he went to Canada with Lord Durham as private secretary, and
after rendering conspicuous service to his chief, returned with him to
England in the same year. After practising as a barrister, Buller was made
judge-advocate-general in 1846, and became chief commissioner of the poor
law about a year before his death. For a long time it was believed that
Buller wrote Lord Durham's famous "Report on the affairs of British North
America." However, this is now denied by several authorities, among them
being Durham's biographer, Stuart J. Reid, who mentions that Buller
described this statement as a "groundless assertion" in an article which he
wrote for the _Edinburgh Review_. Nevertheless it is quite possible that
the "Report" was largely drafted by Buller, and it almost certainly bears
traces of his influence. Buller was a very talented man, witty, popular and
generous, and is described by Carlyle as "the genialest radical I have ever
met." Among his intimate friends were Grote, Thackeray, Monckton Milnes and
Lady Ashburton. A bust of Buller is in Westminster Abbey, and another was
unveiled at Liskeard in 1905. He wrote "A Sketch of Lord Durham's mission
to Canada," which has not been printed.

See T. Carlyle, _Reminiscences_ (1881); and S.J. Reid, _Life and Letters of
the 1st earl of Durham_ (1906).

BULLER, SIR REDVERS HENRY (1839-1908), British general, son of James
Wentworth Buller, M.P., of Crediton, Devonshire, and the descendant of an
old Cornish family, long established in Devonshire, tracing its ancestry in
the female line to Edward I., was born in 1839, and educated at Eton. He
entered the army in 1858, and served with the 60th (King's Royal Rifles) in
the China campaign of 1860. In 1870 he became captain, and went on the Red
River expedition, where he was first associated with Colonel (afterwards
Lord) Wolseley. In 1873-74 he accompanied the latter in the Ashantee
campaign as head of the Intelligence Department, and was slightly wounded
at the battle of Ordabai; he was mentioned in despatches, made a C.B., and
raised to the rank of major. In 1874 he inherited the family estates. In
the Kaffir War of 1878-79 and the Zulu War of 1879 he was conspicuous as an
intrepid and popular leader, and acquired a reputation for courage and
dogged determination. In particular his conduct of the retreat at Inhlobane
(March 28, 1879) drew attention to these qualities, and on that occasion he
earned the V.C.; he was also created C.M.G. and made lieutenant-colonel and
A.D.C. to the queen. In the Boer War of 1881 he was Sir Evelyn Wood's chief
of staff; and thus added to his experience of South African conditions of
warfare. In 1882 he was head of the field intelligence department in the
Egyptian campaign, and was knighted for his services. Two years later he
commanded an infantry brigade in the Sudan under Sir Gerald Graham, and was
at the battles of El Teb and Tamai, being promoted major-general for
distinguished service. In the Sudan campaign of 1884-85 he was Lord
Wolseley's chief of staff, and he was given command of the desert column
when Sir Herbert Stewart was wounded. He distinguished himself by his
conduct of the retreat from Gubat to Gakdul, and by his victory at Abu Klea
(February 16-17), and he was created K.C.B. In 1886 he was sent to Ireland
to inquire into the "moonlighting" outrages, and for a short time he acted
as under-secretary for Ireland; but in 1887 he was appointed
quartermaster-general at the war office. From 1890 to 1897 he held the
office of adjutant-general, attaining the rank of lieutenant-general in
1891. At the war office his energy and ability inspired the belief that he
was fitted for the highest command, and in 1895, when the duke of Cambridge
was about to retire, it was well known that Lord Rosebery's cabinet
intended to appoint Sir Redvers as chief of the staff under a scheme of
reorganization recommended by Lord Hartington's commission. On the eve of
this change, however, the government was defeated, and its successors
appointed Lord Wolseley to the command under the old title of
commander-in-chief. In 1896 he was made a full general.

In 1898 he took command of the troops at Aldershot, and when the Boer War
broke out in 1899 he was selected to command the South African Field Force
(see TRANSVAAL), and landed [v.04 p.0789] at Cape Town on the 31st of
October. Owing to the Boer investment of Ladysmith and the consequent
gravity of the military situation in Natal, he unexpectedly hurried thither
in order to supervise personally the operations, but on the 15th of
December his first attempt to cross the Tugela at Colenso (see LADYSMITH)
was repulsed. The government, alarmed at the situation and the pessimistic
tone of Buller's messages, sent out Lord Roberts to supersede him in the
chief command, Sir Redvers being left in subordinate command of the Natal
force. His second attempt to relieve Ladysmith (January 10-27) proved
another failure, the result of the operations at Spion Kop (January 24)
causing consternation in England. A third attempt (Vaalkrantz, February
5-7) was unsuccessful, but the Natal army finally accomplished its task in
the series of actions which culminated in the victory of Pieter's Hill and
the relief of Ladysmith on the 27th of February. Sir Redvers Buller
remained in command of the Natal army till October 1900, when he returned
to England (being created G.C.M.G.), having in the meanwhile slowly done a
great deal of hard work in driving the Boers from the Biggarsberg (May 15),
forcing Lang's Nek (June 12), and occupying Lydenburg (September 6). But
though these latter operations had done much to re-establish his reputation
for dogged determination, and he had never lost the confidence of his own
men, his capacity for an important command in delicate and difficult
operations was now seriously questioned. The continuance, therefore, in
1901 of his appointment to the important Aldershot command met with a
vigorous press criticism, in which the detailed objections taken to his
conduct of the operations before Ladysmith (and particularly to a message
to Sir George White in which he seriously contemplated and provided for the
contingency of surrender) were given new prominence. On the 10th of October
1901, at a luncheon in London, Sir Redvers Buller made a speech in answer
to these criticisms in terms which were held to be a breach of discipline,
and he was placed on half-pay a few days later. For the remaining years of
his life he played an active part as a country gentleman, accepting in
dignified silence the prolonged attacks on his failures in South Africa;
among the public generally, and particularly in his own county, he never
lost his popularity. He died on the 2nd of June 1908. He had married in
1882 Lady Audrey, daughter of the 4th Marquess Townshend, who survived him
with one daughter.

A _Memoir_, by Lewis Butler, was published in 1909.

BULLET (Fr. _boulet_, diminutive of _boule_, ball). The original meaning (a
"small ball") has, since the end of the 16th century, been narrowed down to
the special case of the projectile used with small arms of all kinds,
irrespective of its size or shape. (For details see AMMUNITION; GUN; RIFLE,
&c.)

BULL-FIGHTING, the national Spanish sport. The Spanish name is
_tauromaquia_ (Gr. [Greek: tauros], bull, and [Greek: mache], combat).
Combats with bulls were common in ancient Thessaly as well as in the
amphitheatres of imperial Rome, but probably partook more of the nature of
worrying than fighting, like the bull-baiting formerly common in England.
The Moors of Africa also possessed a sport of this kind, and it is probable
that they introduced it into Andalusia when they conquered that province.
It is certain that they held bull-fights in the half-ruined Roman
amphitheatres of Merida, Cordova, Tarragona, Toledo and other places, and
that these constituted the favourite sport of the Moorish chieftains.
Although patriotic tradition names the great Cid himself as the original
Spanish bull-fighter, it is probable that the first Spaniard to kill a bull
in the arena was Don Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, who about 1040, employing the
lance, which remained for centuries the chief weapon used in the sport,
proved himself superior to the flower of the Moorish knights. A spirited
rivalry in the art between the Christian and Moorish warriors resulted, in
which even the kings of Castile and other Spanish princes took an ardent
interest. After the Moors were driven from Spain by Ferdinand II.,
bull-fighting continued to be the favourite sport of the aristocracy, the
method of fighting being on horseback with the lance. At the time of the
accession of the house of Austria it had become an indispensable accessory
of every court function, and Charles V. ensured his popularity with the
people by killing a bull with his own lance on the birthday of his son,
Philip II. Philip IV. is also known to have taken a personal part in
bull-fights. During this period the lance was discarded in favour of the
short spear (_rejoncillo_), and the leg armour still worn by the
_picadores_ was introduced. The accession of the house of Bourbon witnessed
a radical transformation in the character of the bullfight, which the
aristocracy began gradually to neglect, admitting to the combats
professional subordinates who, by the end of the 17th century, had become
the only active participants in the bull-ring. The first great professional
_espada_ (_i.e._ swordsman, the chief bull-fighter, who actually kills the
bull) was Francisco Romero, of Ronda in Andalusia (about 1700), who
introduced the _estoque_, the sword still used to kill the bull, and the
_muleta_, the red flag carried by the _espada_ (see below), the spear
falling into complete disuse.

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