Book: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 4

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See A. Vernarecci in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1886, 411 (cf. _ibid._ 227);
_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ (Berlin, 1901), Nos. 6106, 6107.

(T. AS.)

CAGLIARI (anc. _Carales_), the capital of the island of Sardinia, an
archiepiscopal see, and the chief town of the province of Cagliari, which
embraces the southern half of the island. It is 270 m. W.S.W. of Naples,
and 375 m. south of Genoa by sea. Pop. (1900) of town, 48,098; of commune,
53,057. It is finely situated at the northern extremity of the Gulf of
Cagliari, in the centre of the south coast of the island. The medieval town
occupies a long narrow hill running N. and S. with precipitous [v.04
p.0946] cliffs on the E. and W. which must have been the ancient acropolis,
but the modern town, like the Roman town before it, extends to the slopes
of the hill and to the low ground by the sea. On each side of the town are
lagoons. That of S. Gilla on the W., which produces fish in abundance, was
originally an open bay. That of Molentargius on the E. has large saltpans.
The upper town still retains in part its fortifications, including the two
great towers at the two extremities, called the Torre dell' Elefante (S.)
and the Torre di S. Pancrazio (N.), both erected by the Pisans, the former
in 1307, the latter in 1305. The Torre di S. Pancrazio at the highest point
(367 ft. above sea-level) commands a magnificent view. Close to it is the
archaeological museum, the most important in the island. To the north of it
are the modern citadel and the barracks, and beyond, a public promenade.
The narrow streets run from north to south for the whole length of the
upper town. On the edge of the cliffs on the E. is the cathedral, built in
1257-1312 by the Pisans, and retaining two of the original transept doors.
The pulpit of the same period is also fine: it now stands, divided into
two, on each side of the entrance, while the lions which supported it are
on the balustrade in front of the cathedral (see E. Brunelli in _L'Arte_,
Rome, 1901, 59; D. Scano, _ibid._ 204). Near the sacristy are also some
Gothic chapels of the Aragonese period. The church was, however, remodelled
in 1676, and the interior is baroque. Two fine silver candelabra, the
tabernacle and the altar front are of the 17th century; and the treasury
also contains some good silver work. (See D. Scano in _Bolletino d'Arte_,
February 1907, p. 14; and E. Brunelli in _L'Arte_, 1907, p. 47.) The crypt
contains three ancient sarcophagi. The facade, in the baroque style, was
added in 1703. The university, a little farther north, the buildings of
which were erected in 1764, has some 240 students. At the south extremity
of the hill, on the site of the bastian of south Caterina, a large terrace,
the Passeggiata Umberto Primo, has been constructed: it is much in use on
summer evenings, and has a splendid view. Below it are covered promenades,
and from it steps descend to the lower town, the oldest part of which (the
so-called Marina), sloping gradually towards the sea, is probably the
nucleus of the Roman _municipium_, while the quarter of Stampace lies to
the west, and beyond it again the suburb of Sant' Avendrace. The northern
portion of this, below the castle hill, is the older, while the part near
the shore consists mainly of modern buildings of no great interest. To the
east of the castle hill and the Marina is the quarter of Villanova, which
contains the church of S. Saturnino, a domed church of the 8th century with
a choir of the Pisan period. The harbour of Cagliari (along the north side
of which runs a promenade called the Via Romo) is a good one, and has a
considerable trade, exporting chiefly lead, zinc and other minerals and
salt, the total annual value of exports amounting to nearly 11/2 million
sterling in value. The Campidano of Cagliari, the plain which begins at the
north end of the lagoon of S. Gilla, is very fertile and much cultivated,
as is also the district to the east round Quarto S. Elena, a village with
8459 inhabitants (1901). The national costumes are rarely now seen in the
neighbourhood of Cagliari, except at certain festivals, especially that of
S. Efisio (May 1-4) at Pula (see NORA). The methods of cultivation are
primitive: the curious water-wheels, made of brushwood with pots tied on to
them, and turned by a blindfolded donkey, may be noted. The ox-carts are
often made with solid wheels, for greater strength. Prickly pear
(_opuntia_) hedges are as frequent as in Sicily. Cagliari is considerably
exposed to winds in winter, while in summer it is almost African in
climate. The aqueduct was constructed in quite recent times, rain-water
having previously given the only supply. The main line of railway runs
north to Decimomannu (for Iglesias), Oristano, Macomer and Chilivani (for
Golfo degli Aranci and Sassari); while another line (narrow-gauge) runs to
Mandas (for Sorgono and Tortoli). There is also a tramway to Quarto S.
Elena.

In A.D. 485 the whole of Sardinia was taken by the Vandals from Africa; but
in 533 it was retaken by Justinian. In 687 Cagliari rose against the East
Roman emperors, under Gialetus, one of the citizens, who made himself king
of the whole island, his three brothers becoming governors of Torres (in
the N.W.), Arborea (in the S.W.) and Gallura (in the N.E. of the island).
The Saracens devastated it in the 8th century, but were driven out, and the
island returned to the rule of kings, until they fell in the 10th century,
their place being taken by four "judges" of the four provinces, Cagliari,
Torres, Arborea and Gallura. In the 12th century Musatto, a Saracen,
established himself in Cagliari, but was driven out with the help of the
Pisans and Genoese. The Pisans soon acquired the sovereignty over the whole
island with the exception of Arborea, which continued to be independent. In
1297 Boniface VIII. invested the kings of Aragon with Sardinia, and in 1326
they finally drove the Pisans out of Cagliari, and made it the seat of
their government. In 1348 the island was devastated by the plague described
by Boccaccio. It was not until 1403 that the kings of Aragon were able to
conquer the district of Arborea, which, under the celebrated Eleonora
(whose code of laws--the so-called _Carta de Logu_--was famous), offered a
heroic resistance. In 1479 the native princes were deprived of all
independence. The island remained in the hands of Spain until the peace of
Utrecht (1714), by which it was assigned to Austria. In 1720 it was ceded
by the latter, in exchange for Sicily, to the duke of Savoy, who assumed
the title of king of Sardinia (Cagliari continuing to be the seat of
government), and this remained the title of the house of Savoy until 1861.
Cagliari was bombarded by the French fleet in 1793, but Napoleon's attempt
to take the island failed.

(T. AS.)

CAGLIOSTRO, ALESSANDRO, COUNT (1743-1793), Italian alchemist and impostor,
was born at Palermo on the 8th of June 1743. Giuseppe Balsamo--for such was
the "count's" real name--gave early indications of those talents which
afterwards gained for him so wide a notoriety. He received the rudiments of
his education at the monastery of Caltagirone in Sicily, but was expelled
from it for misconduct and disowned by his relations. He now signalized
himself by his dissolute life and the ingenuity with which he contrived to
perpetrate forgeries and other crimes without exposing himself to the risk
of detection. Having at last got into trouble with the authorities he fled
from Sicily, and visited in succession Greece, Egypt, Arabia, Persia,
Rhodes--where he took lessons in alchemy and the cognate sciences from the
Greek Althotas--and Malta. There he presented himself to the grand master
of the Maltese order as Count Cagliostro, and curried favour with him as a
fellow alchemist, for the grand master's tastes lay in the same direction.
From him he obtained introductions to the great houses of Rome and Naples,
whither he now hastened. At Rome he married a beautiful but unprincipled
woman, Lorenza Feliciani, with whom he travelled, under different names,
through many parts of Europe. It is unnecessary to recount the various
infamous means which he employed to pay his expenses during these journeys.
He visited London and Paris in 1771, selling love-philtres, elixirs of
youth, mixtures for making ugly women beautiful, alchemistic powders, &c.,
and deriving large profits from his trade. After further travels on the
continent he returned to London, where he posed as the founder of a new
system of freemasonry, and was well received in the best society, being
adored by the ladies. He went to Germany and Holland once more, and to
Russia, Poland, and then again to Paris, where, in 1785, he was implicated
in the affair of the Diamond Necklace (_q.v._); and although Cagliostro
escaped conviction by the matchless impudence of his defence, he was
imprisoned for other reasons in the Bastille. On his liberation he visited
England once more, where he succeeded well at first; but was ultimately
outwitted by some English lawyers, and confined for a while in the Fleet
prison. Leaving England, he travelled through Europe as far as Rome, where
he was arrested in 1789. He was tried and condemned to death for being a
heretic, but the sentence was commuted to perpetual imprisonment, while his
wife was immured in a convent. He died in the fortress prison of San Leo in
1795.

The best account of the life, adventures and character of Giuseppe Balsamo
is contained in Carlyle's _Miscellanies_. Dumas's novel, _Memoirs of a
Physician_, is founded on his adventures; see also a [v.04 p.0947] series
of papers in the _Dublin University Magazine_, vols. lxxviii. and lxxix.;
_Memorial, or Brief for Cagliostro in the Cause of Card. de Rohan_, &c.
(Fr.) by P. Macmahon (1786); _Compendio della vita e delle gesta di
Giuseppe Balsamo denominato il conte di Cagliostro_ (Rome, 1791); Sierke,
_Schwarmer und Schwindler zu Ende des XVIII. Jahrhunderts_ (1875); and the
sketch of his life in D. Silvagni's _La Corte e la Societa Romana nei
secoli XVIII. e XIX._ vol. i. (Florence, 1881).

(L. V.*)

CAGNIARD DE LA TOUR, CHARLES (1777-1859), French engineer and physicist,
was born in Paris on the 31st of March 1777, and after attending the Ecole
Polytechnique became one of the _ingenieurs geographiques_. He was made a
baron in 1818, and died in Paris on the 5th of July 1859. He was the author
of numerous inventions, including the cagniardelle, a blowing machine,
which consists essentially of an Archimedean screw set obliquely in a tank
of water in such a way that its lower end is completely and its upper end
partially immersed, and operated by being rotated in the opposite direction
to that required for raising water. In acoustics he invented, about 1819,
the improved siren which is known by his name, using it for ascertaining
the number of vibrations corresponding to a sound of any particular pitch,
and he also made experiments on the mechanism of voice-production. In
course of an investigation in 1822-1823 on the effects of heat and pressure
on certain liquids he found that for each there was a certain temperature
above which it refused to remain liquid but passed into the gaseous state,
no matter what the amount of pressure to which it was subjected, and in the
case of water he determined this critical temperature, with a remarkable
approach to accuracy, to be 362 deg.C. He also studied the nature of yeast and
the influence of extreme cold upon its life.

CAGNOLA, LUIGI, MARCHESE (1762-1833), Italian architect, was born on the
9th of June 1762 in Milan. He was sent at the age of fourteen to the
Clementine College at Rome, and afterwards studied at the university of
Pavia. He was intended for the legal profession, but his passion for
architecture was too strong, and after holding some government posts at
Milan, he entered as a competitor for the construction of the Porta
Orientale. His designs were commended, but were not selected on account of
the expense their adoption would have involved. From that time Cagnola
devoted himself entirely to architecture. After the death of his father he
spent two years in Verona and Venice, studying the architectural structures
of these cities. In 1806 he was called upon to erect a triumphal arch for
the marriage of Eugene Beauharnais with the princess of Bavaria. The arch
was of wood, but was of such beauty that it was resolved to carry it out in
marble. The result was the magnificent Arco della Pace in Milan, surpassed
in dimensions only by the Arc de l'Etoile at Paris. Among other works
executed by Cagnola are the Porta di Marengo at Milan, the campanile at
Urgnano, and the chapel of Santa Marcellina in Milan. He died on the 14th
of August 1833, five years before the completion of the Arco del Sempione,
which he designed for his native city.

CAGOTS, a people found in the Basque provinces, Bearn, Gascony and
Brittany. The earliest mention of them is in 1288, when they appear to have
been called Christiens or Christianos. In the 16th century they had many
names, Cagots, Gahets, Gafets in France; Agotes, Gafos in Spain; and
Cacons, Cahets, Caqueux and Caquins in Brittany. During the middle ages
they were popularly looked upon as cretins, lepers, heretics and even as
cannibals. They were shunned and hated; were allotted separate quarters in
towns, called _cagoteries_, and lived in wretched huts in the country
distinct from the villages. Excluded from all political and social rights,
they were only allowed to enter a church by a special door, and during the
service a rail separated them from the other worshippers. Either they were
altogether forbidden to partake of the sacrament, or the holy wafer was
handed to them on the end of a stick, while a receptacle for holy water was
reserved for their exclusive use. They were compelled to wear a distinctive
dress, to which, in some places, was attached the foot of a goose or duck
(whence they were sometimes called _Canards_). And so pestilential was
their touch considered that it was a crime for them to walk the common road
barefooted. The only trades allowed them were those of butcher and
carpenter, and their ordinary occupation was wood-cutting. Their language
is merely a corrupt form of that spoken around them; but a Teutonic origin
seems to be indicated by their fair complexions and blue eyes. Their crania
have a normal development; their cheek-bones are high; their noses
prominent, with large nostrils; their lips straight; and they are marked by
the absence of the auricular lobules.

The origin of the Cagots is undecided. Littre defines them as "a people of
the Pyrenees affected with a kind of cretinism." It has been suggested that
they were descendants of the Visigoths, and Michael derives the name from
_caas_ (dog) and _Goth_. But opposed to this etymology is the fact that the
word _cagot_ is first found in the _for_ of Bearn not earlier than 1551.
Marca, in his _Histoire de Bearn_, holds that the word signifies "hunters
of the Goths," and that the Cagots are descendants of the Saracens. Others
made them descendants of the Albigenses. The old MSS. call them Chretiens
or Chrestiaas, and from this it has been argued that they were Visigoths
who originally lived as Christians among the Gascon pagans. A far more
probable explanation of their name "Chretiens" is to be found in the fact
that in medieval times all lepers were known as _pauperes Christi_, and
that, Goths or not, these Cagots were affected in the middle ages with a
particular form of leprosy or a condition resembling it. Thus would arise
the confusion between Christians and Cretins. To-day their descendants are
not more subject to goitre and cretinism than those dwelling around them,
and are recognized by tradition and not by features or physical degeneracy.
It was not until the French Revolution that any steps were taken to
ameliorate their lot, but to-day they no longer form a class, but have been
practically lost sight of in the general peasantry.

See Francisque Michel, _Histoire des races maudites de France et d'Espagne_
(Paris, 1846); Abbe Venuti, _Recherches sur les Cahets de Bordeaux_ (1754);
_Bulletins de la societe anthropologique_ (1861, 1867, 1868, 1871);
_Annales medico-psychologiques_ (Jan. 1867); Lagneau, _Questionnaire sur
l'ethnologie de la France_; Paul Raymond, _Moeurs bearnaises_ (Pau, 1872);
V. de Rochas, _Les Parias de France et d'Espagne (Cagots et Bohemiens)_
(Paris, 1877); J. Hack Tuke, _Jour. Anthropological Institute_ (vol. ix.,
1880).

CAHER (or CAHIR), a market-town of Co. Tipperary, Ireland, in the south
parliamentary division, beautifully situated on the river Suir at the foot
of the Galtee Mountains. Pop. (1901) 2058. It stands midway between Clonmel
and Tipperary town on the Waterford and Limerick line of the Great Southern
and Western railway, 124 m. S.W. from Dublin. It is the centre of a rich
agricultural district, and there is some industry in flour-milling. Its
name (_cathair_, stone fortress) implies a high antiquity and the site of
the castle, picturesquely placed on an island in the river, was occupied
from very early times. Here was a fortress-palace of Munster, originally
called _Dun-iasgach_, the suffix signifying "abounding in fish." The
present castle dates from 1142, being built by O'Connor, lord of Thomond,
and is well restored. It was besieged during the wars of 1599 and 1647, and
by Cromwell. Among the fine environs of the town the demesne of Caher Park
is especially noteworthy. The Mitchelstown stalactite caverns, 10 m. S.W.,
and the finely-placed Norman castle of Ardfinnan, on a precipitous crag 6
m. down the Suir, are other neighbouring features of interest, while the
Galtee Mountains, reaching in Galtymore a height of 3015 ft., command
admirable prospects.

CAHITA, a group of North American Indians, mainly of the Mayo and Yaqui
tribes, found chiefly in Mexico, belonging to the Piman family, and
numbering some 40,000.

CAHOKIA, the name of a North American Indian tribe of the Illinois
confederacy, and of their mission station, near St Louis. The "Cahokia
mound" there (a model of which is in the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass.)
is interesting as the largest pre-historic earth-work in America.

CAHORS, a city of south-western France, capital of the department of Lot,
70 m. N. of Toulouse, on the railway between that city and Limoges. Pop.
(1906) 10,047. Cahors stands on the right bank of the river Lot, occupying
a rocky peninsula formed by a bend in the stream. It is divided into two
portions [v.04 p.0948] by the Boulevard Gambetta, which runs from the Pont
Louis Philippe on the south to within a short distance of the fortified
wall of the 14th and 15th centuries enclosing the town on the north. To the
east lies the old town, with its dark narrow streets and closely-packed
houses; west of the Boulevard a newer quarter, with spacious squares and
promenades, stretches to the bank of the river. Cahors communicates with
the opposite shore by three bridges. One of these, the Pont Valentre to the
west of the town, is the finest fortified bridge of the middle ages in
France. It is a structure of the early 14th century, restored in the 19th
century, and is defended at either end by high machicolated towers, another
tower, less elaborate, surmounting the centre pier. The east bridge, the
Pont Neuf, also dates from the 14th century. The cathedral of St Etienne
stands in the heart of the old town. It dates from the 12th century, but
was entirely restored in the 13th century. Its exterior, for the most part
severe in appearance, is relieved by some fine sculpture, that of the north
portal being especially remarkable. The nave, which is without aisles, is
surmounted by two cupolas; its interior is whitewashed and plain in
appearance, while the choir is decorated with medieval paintings. Adjoining
the church to the south-east there are remains of a cloister built from
1494 to 1509. St Urcisse, the chief of the other ecclesiastical buildings,
stands near the cathedral. Dating from the 12th and 13th centuries, it
preserves Romanesque capitals recarved in the 14th century. The principal
of the civil buildings is the palace of Pope John XXII., built at the
beginning of the 14th century; a massive square tower is still standing,
but the rest is in ruins. The residence of the seneschals of Quercy, a
building of the 14th to the 17th centuries, known as the Logis du Roi, also
remains. The chief of the old houses, of which there are many in Cahors, is
one of the 15th century, known as the Maison d'Henri IV. Most of the state
buildings are modern, with the exception of the prefecture which occupies
the old episcopal palace, and the old convent and the Jesuit college in
which the Lycee Gambetta is established. The Porte de Diane is a large
archway of the Roman period, probably the entrance to the baths. Of the
commemorative monuments, the finest is that erected in the Place d'Armes to
Gambetta, who was a native of the town. There is also a statue of the poet
Clement Marot, born at Cahors in 1496. Cahors is the seat of a bishopric, a
prefect and a court of assizes. It has tribunals of first instance and of
commerce, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. There
are also training colleges, a lycee, a communal college for girls, an
ecclesiastical seminary, a library, museum and hospital. The manufacture of
farm implements, tanning, wool-spinning, metal-founding, distilling and the
preparation of _pate de foie gras_ and other delicacies are carried on.
Wine, nuts, oil of nuts, tobacco, truffles and plums are leading articles
of commerce.

_History._--Before the Roman conquest, Cahors, which grew up near the
sacred fountain of Divona (now known as the Fontaine des Chartreux), was
the capital of the Cadurci. Under the Romans it enjoyed a prosperity partly
due to its manufacture of cloth and of mattresses, which were exported even
to Rome. The first bishop of Cahors, St Genulfus, appears to have lived in
the 3rd century. In the middle ages the town was the capital of Quercy, and
its territory until after the Albigensian Crusade was a fief of the counts
of Toulouse. The seigniorial rights, including that of coining money,
belonged to the bishops. In the 13th century Cahors was a financial centre
of much importance owing to its colony of Lombard bankers, and the name
_cahorsin_ consequently came to signify "banker" or "usurer." At the
beginning of the century a commune was organized in the town. Its constant
opposition to the bishops drove them, in 1316, to come to an arrangement
with the French king, by which the administration of the town was placed
almost entirely in the hands of royal officers, king and bishop being
co-seigneurs. This arrangement survived till the Revolution. In 1331 Pope
John XXII., a native of Cahors, founded there a university, which
afterwards numbered Jacques Cujas among its teachers and Francois Fenelon
among its students. It flourished till 1751, when it was united to its
rival the university of Toulouse. During the Hundred Years' War, Cahors,
like the rest of Quercy, consistently resisted the English occupation, from
which it was relieved in 1428. In the 16th century it belonged to the
viscounts of Bearn, but remained Catholic and rose against Henry of Navarre
who took it by assault in 1580. On his accession Henry IV. punished the
town by depriving it of its privileges as a wine-market; the loss of these
was the chief cause of its decline.

CAIATIA (mod. _Caiazzo_), an ancient city of Campania, on the right bank of
the Volturnus, 11 m. N.E. of Capua, on the road between it and Telesia. It
was already in the hands of the Romans in 306 B.C., and since in the 3rd
century B.C. it issued copper coins with a Latin legend it must have had
the _civitas sine suffragio_. In the Social War it rebelled from Rome, and
its territory was added to that of Capua by Sulla. In the imperial period,
however, we find it once more a _municipium_. Caiatia has remains of
Cyclopean walls, and under the Piazza del Mercato is a large Roman cistern,
which still provides a good water supply. The episcopal see was founded in
A.D. 966. The place is frequently confused with Calatia (_q.v._).

CAIETAE PORTUS (mod. _Gaeta_), an ancient harbour of _Latium adiectum_,
Italy, in the territory of Formiae, from which it is 5 m. S.W. The name
(originally [Greek: Aiete]) is generally derived from the nurse of Aeneas.
The harbour, owing to its fine anchorage, was much in use, but the place
was never a separate town, but always dependent on Formiae. Livy mentions a
temple of Apollo. The coast of the Gulf not only between Caietae Portus and
Formiae, but E. of the latter also, as far as the modern Monte Scauri, was
a favourite summer resort (see FORMIA). Cicero may have had villas both at
Portus Caietae and at Formiae[1] proper, and the emperors certainly
possessed property at both places. After the destruction of Formiae in A.D.
847 it became one of the most important seaports of central Italy (see
GAETA). In the town are scanty remains of an amphitheatre and theatre: near
the church of La Trinita, higher up, are remains of a large reservoir.
There are also traces of an aqueduct. The promontory (548 ft.) is crowned
by the tomb of Munatius Plancus, founder of Lugudunum (mod. Lyons), who
died after 22 B.C. It is a circular structure of blocks of travertine 160
ft. high and 180 ft. in diameter. Further inland is the so-called tomb of
L. Atratinus, about 100 ft. in diameter. Caietae Portus was no doubt
connected with the Via Appia (which passed through Formiae) by a
_deverticulum_. There seems also to have been a road running W.N.W. along
the precipitous coast to Speluncae (mod. Sperlonga).

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