Book: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 4

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See E. Gesualdo _Osservazioni critiche sopra la storia della Via Appia di
Pratilli_ p. 7 (Naples, 1754).

(T. AS.)

[1] The two places are sufficiently close for the one villa to have borne
both names; but Mommsen (_Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ x., Berlin, 1883, p. 603)
prefers to differentiate them.

CAILLIE (or CAILLE), RENE AUGUSTE (1799-1838), French explorer, was born at
Mauze, Poitou, in 1799, the son of a baker. The reading of _Robinson
Crusoe_ kindled in him a love of travel and adventure, and at the age of
sixteen he made a voyage to Senegal whence he went to Guadeloupe. Returning
to Senegal in 1818 he made a journey to Bondu to carry supplies to a
British expedition then in that country. Ill with fever he was obliged to
go back to France, but in 1824 was again in Senegal with the fixed idea of
penetrating to Timbuktu. He spent eight months with the Brakna "Moors"
living north of Senegal river, learning Arabic and being taught, as a
convert, the laws and customs of Islam. He laid his project of reaching
Timbuktu before the governor of Senegal, but receiving no encouragement
went to Sierra Leone where the British authorities made him superintendent
of an indigo plantation. Having saved L80 he joined a Mandingo caravan
going inland. He was dressed as a Mussulman, and gave out that he was an
Arab from Egypt who had been carried off by the French to Senegal and was
desirous of regaining his own country. Starting from Kakundi near Boke on
the Rio Nunez on 19th of April 1827, he travelled east along the hills of
Futa Jallon, passing the head streams of the Senegal and crossing the Upper
Niger at Kurussa. Still going east he came to the Kong highlands, where at
a place called Time he was detained five months by illness. Resuming his
journey [v.04 p.0949] in January 1828 he went north-east and gained the
city of Jenne, whence he continued his journey to Timbuktu by water. After
spending a fortnight (20th April-4th May) in Timbuktu he joined a caravan
crossing the Sahara to Morocco, reaching Fez on the 12th of August. From
Tangier he returned to France. He had been preceded at Timbuktu by a
British officer, Major Gordon Laing, but Laing had been murdered (1826) on
leaving the city and Caillie was the first to accomplish the journey in
safety. He was awarded the prize of L400 offered by the Geographical
Society of Paris to the first traveller who should gain exact information
of Timbuktu, to be compared with that given by Mungo Park. He also received
the order of the Legion of Honour, a pension, and other distinctions, and
it was at the public expense that his _Journal d'un voyage a Temboctou et a
Jenne dans l'Afrique Centrale_, etc. (edited by E.F. Jomard) was published
in three volumes in 1830. Caillie died at Badere in 1838 of a malady
contracted during his African travels. For the greater part of his life he
spelt his name Caillie, afterwards omitting the second "i."

See Dr Robert Brown's _The Story of Africa_, vol. i. chap. xii. (London,
1892); Goepp and Cordier, _Les Grands Hommes de France, voyageurs: Rene
Caille_ (Paris, 1885); E.F. Jomard, _Notice historique sur la vie et les
voyages de R. Caillie_ (Paris, 1839). An English version of Caillie's
_Journal_ was published in London in 1830 in two volumes under the title of
_Travels through Central Africa to Timbuctoo_, &c.

CAIN, in the Bible, the eldest son of Adam and Eve (Gen. iv.), was a tiller
of the ground, whilst his younger brother, Abel, was a keeper of sheep.
Enraged because the Lord accepted Abel's offering, and rejected his own, he
slew his brother in the field (see ABEL). For this a curse was pronounced
upon him, and he was condemned to be a "fugitive and a wanderer" on the
earth, a mark being set upon him "lest any finding him should kill him." He
took up his abode in the land of Nod ("wandering") on the east of Eden,
where he built a city, which he named after his son Enoch. The narrative
presents a number of difficulties, which early commentators sought to solve
with more ingenuity than success. But when it is granted that the ancient
Hebrews, like other primitive peoples, had their own mythical and
traditional figures, the story of Cain becomes less obscure. The mark set
upon Cain is usually regarded as some tribal mark or sign analogous to the
cattle marks of Bedouin and the related usages in Europe. Such marks had
often a religious significance, and denoted that the bearer was a follower
of a particular deity. The suggestion has been made that the name Cain is
the eponym of the Kenites, and although this clan has a good name almost
everywhere in the Old Testament, yet in Num. xxiv. 22 its destruction is
foretold, and the Amalekites, of whom they formed a division, are
consistently represented as the inveterate enemies of Yahweh and of his
people Israel. The story of Cain and Abel, which appears to represent the
nomad life as a curse, may be an attempt to explain the origin of an
existence which in the eyes of the settled agriculturist was one of
continual restlessness, whilst at the same time it endeavours to find a
reason for the institution of blood-revenge on the theory that at some
remote age a man (or tribe) had killed his brother (or brother tribe).
Cain's subsequent founding of a city finds a parallel in the legend of the
origin of Rome through the swarms of outlaws and broken men of all kinds
whom Romulus attracted thither. The list of Cain's descendants reflects the
old view of the beginnings of civilization; it is thrown into the form of a
genealogy and is parallel to Gen. v. (see GENESIS). It finds its analogy in
the Phoenician account of the origin of different inventions which Eusebius
(_Praep. Evang._ i. 10) quotes from Philo of Byblus (Gebal), and probably
both go back to a common Babylonian origin.

On this question, see Driver, _Genesis_ (Westminster Comm., London, 1904),
p. 80 seq.; A. Jeremias, _Alte Test. im Lichte d. Alten Orients_ (Leipzig,
1906), pp. 220 seq.; also ENOCH, LAMECH. On the story of Cain, see
especially Stade, _Akademische Reden_, pp. 229-273; Ed. Meyer,
_Israeliten_, pp. 395 sqq.; A.R. Gordon, _Early Trad. Genesis_ (Index).
Literary criticism (see Cheyne, _Encycl. Bib._ col. 620-628, and 4411-4417)
has made it extremely probable that Cain the nomad and outlaw (Gen. iv.
1-16) was originally distinct from Cain the city-builder (vv. 17 sqq.). The
latter was perhaps regarded as a "smith," cp. v. 22 where Tubal-cain is the
"father" of those who work in bronze (or copper). That the Kenites, too,
were a race of metal-workers is quite uncertain, although even at the
present day the smiths in Arabia form a distinct nomadic class. Whatever be
the meaning of the name, the words put into Eve's mouth (v. I) probably are
not an etymology, but an assonance (Driver). It is noteworthy that Kenan,
son of Enosh ("man," Gen. v. 9), appears in Sabaean inscriptions of South
Arabia as the name of a tribal-god.

A Gnostic sect of the 2nd century was known by the name of Cainites. They
are first mentioned by Irenaeus, who connects them with the Valentinians.
They believed that Cain derived his existence from the superior power, and
Abel from the inferior power, and that in this respect he was the first of
a line which included Esau, Korah, the Sodomites and Judas Iscariot.

(S. A. C.)

CAINE, THOMAS HENRY HALL (1853- ), British novelist and dramatist, was born
of mixed Manx and Cumberland parentage at Runcorn, Cheshire, on the 14th of
May 1853. He was educated with a view to becoming an architect, but turned
to journalism, becoming a leader-writer on the _Liverpool Mercury_. He came
up to London at the suggestion of D.G. Rossetti, with whom he had had some
correspondence, and lived with the poet for some time before his death. He
published a volume of _Recollections of Rossetti_ (1882), and also some
critical work; but in 1885 he began an extremely successful career as a
novelist of a melodramatic type with _The Shadow of a Crime_, followed by
_The Son of Hagar_ (1886), _The Deemster_ (1887), _The Bondman_ (1890),
_The Scapegoat_ (1891), _The Manxman_ (1894), _The Christian_ (1897), _The
Eternal City_ (1901), and _The Prodigal Son_ (1904). His writings on Manx
subjects were acknowledged by his election in 1901 to represent Ramsey in
the House of Keys. _The Deemster_, _The Manxman_ and _The Christian_ had
already been produced in dramatic form, when _The Eternal City_ was staged
with magnificent accessories by Mr Beerbohm Tree in 1902, and in 1905 _The
Prodigal Son_ had a successful run at Drury Lane.

See C.F. Kenyon, _Hall Caine_; _The Man and the Novelist_ (1901); and the
novelist's autobiography, _My Story_ (1908).

CA'ING WHALE (_Globicephalus melas_), a large representative of the dolphin
tribe frequenting the coasts of Europe, the Atlantic coast of North
America, the Cape and New Zealand. From its nearly uniform black colour it
is also called the "black-fish." Its maximum length is about 20 ft. These
cetaceans are gregarious and inoffensive in disposition and feed chiefly on
cuttle-fish. Their sociable character constantly leads to their
destruction, as when attacked they instinctively rush together, and blindly
follow the leaders of the herd, whence the names pilot-whale and ca'ing (or
driving) whale. Many hundreds at a time are thus frequently driven ashore
and killed, when a herd enters one of the bays or fiords of the Faeroe
Islands or north of Scotland. The ca'ing whale of the North Pacific has
been distinguished as _G. scammoni_, while one from the Atlantic coast,
south of New Jersey, and another from the bay of Bengal, are possibly also
distinct. (See CETACEA.)

CAINOZOIC (from the Gr. _[Greek: kainos]_, recent, _[Greek: zoe]_, life),
also written Cenozoic (American), _Kainozoisch_, _Caenozoisch_ (German),
_Cenozoaire_ (Renevier), in geology, the name given to the youngest of the
three great eras of geological time, the other two being the Mesozoic and
Palaeozoic eras. Some authors have employed the term "Neozoic"
(_Neozoisch_) with the same significance, others have restricted its
application to the Tertiary epoch (_Neozoique_, De Lapparent). The
"Neogene" of Hoernes (1853) included the Miocene and Pliocene periods;
Renevier subsequently modified its form to _Neogenique_. The remaining
Tertiary periods were classed as Paleogaen by Naumaun in 1866. The word
"Neocene" has been used in place of Neozoic, but its employment is open to
objection.

Some confusion has been introduced by the use of the term Cainozoic to
include, on the one hand, the Tertiary period alone, and on the other hand,
to make it include both the Tertiary and the post-Tertiary or Quaternary
epochs; and in order that it may bear a relationship to the concepts of
time and faunal development similar to those indicated by the terms
Mesozoic and Palaeozoic it is advisable to restrict its use to the latter
alternative. Thus the Cainozoic era would embrace all the geological
periods from Eocene to Recent. (See TERTIARY and PLEISTOCENE.)

(J. A. H.)

[v.04 p.0950] CAIQUE (from Turk. _Kaik_), a light skiff or rowing-boat used
by the Turks, having from one to twelve rowers; also a Levantine sailing
vessel of considerable size.

CA IRA, a song of the French Revolution, with the refrain:--

"_Ah! ca ira, ca ira, ca ira!_
_Les aristocrates a la lanterne._"

The words, written by one Ladre, a street singer, were put to an older
tune, called "Le Carillon National," and the song rivalled the "Carmagnole"
(_q.v._) during the Terror. It was forbidden by the Directory.

CAIRD, EDWARD (1835-1908), British philosopher and theologian, brother of
John Caird (_q.v._), was born at Greenock on the 22nd of March 1835, and
educated at Glasgow University and Balliol College, Oxford. He took a first
class in moderations in 1862 and in _Literae humaniores_ in 1863, and was
Pusey and Ellerton scholar in 1861. From 1864 to 1866 he was fellow and
tutor of Merton College. In 1866 he became professor of moral philosophy in
the university of Glasgow, and in 1893 succeeded Benjamin Jowett as master
of Balliol. With Thomas Hill Green he founded in England a school of
orthodox neo-Hegelianism (see HEGEL, _ad fin._), and through his pupils he
exerted a far-reaching influence on English philosophy and theology. Owing
to failing health he gave up his lectures in 1904, and in May 1906 resigned
his mastership, in which he was succeeded by James Leigh Strachan-Davidson,
who had previously for some time, as senior tutor and fellow, borne the
chief burden of college administration. Dr Caird received the honorary
degree of D.C.L. in 1892; he was made a corresponding member of the French
Academy of Moral and Political Science and a fellow of the British Academy.
His publications include _Philosophy of Kant_ (1878); _Critical Philosophy
of Kant_ (1889); _Religion and Social Philosophy of Comte_ (1885); _Essays
on Literature and Philosophy_ (1892); _Evolution of Religion_ (Gifford
Lectures, 1891-1892); _Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers_
(1904); and he is represented in this encyclopaedia by the article on
CARTESIANISM. He died on the 1st of November 1908.

For a criticism of Dr Caird's theology, see A.W. Benn, _English Rationalism
in the 19th Century_ (London, 1906).

CAIRD, JOHN (1820-1898), Scottish divine and philosopher, was born at
Greenock on the 15th of December 1820. In his sixteenth year he entered the
office of his father, who was partner and manager of a firm of engineers.
Two years later, however, he obtained leave to continue his studies at
Glasgow University. After a year of academic life he tried business again,
but in 1840 he gave it up finally and returned to college. In 1845 he
entered the ministry of the Church of Scotland, and after holding several
livings accepted the chair of divinity at Glasgow in 1862. During these
years he won a foremost place among the preachers of Scotland. In theology
he was a Broad Churchman, seeking always to emphasize the permanent
elements in religion, and ignoring technicalities. In 1873 he was appointed
vice-chancellor and principal of Glasgow University. He delivered the
Gifford Lectures in 1892-1893 and in 1895-1896. His _Introduction to the
Philosophy of Religion_ (1880) is an attempt to show the essential
rationality of religion. It is idealistic in character, being in fact a
reproduction of Hegelian teaching in clear and melodious language. His
argument for the Being of God is based on the hypothesis that thought--not
individual but universal--is the reality of all things, the existence of
this Infinite Thought being demonstrated by the limitations of finite
thought. Again his Gifford Lectures are devoted to the proof of the truth
of Christianity on grounds of right reason alone. Caird wrote also an
excellent study of Spinoza, in which he showed the latent Hegelianism of
the great Jewish philosopher. He died on the 30th of July 1898.

CAIRN (in Gaelic and Welsh, _Carn_), a heap of stones piled up in a conical
form. In modern times cairns are often erected as landmarks. In ancient
times they were erected as sepulchral monuments. The _Duan Eireanach_, an
ancient Irish poem, describes the erection of a family cairn; and the
_Senchus Mor_, a collection of ancient Irish laws, prescribes a fine of
three three-year-old heifers for "not erecting the tomb of thy chief."
Meetings of the tribes were held at them, and the inauguration of a new
chief took place on the cairn of one of his predecessors. It is mentioned
in the _Annals of the Four Masters_ that, in 1225, the O'Connor was
inaugurated on the cairn of Fraech, the son of Fiodhach of the red hair. In
medieval times cairns are often referred to as boundary marks, though
probably not originally raised for that purpose. In a charter by King
Alexander II. (1221), granting the lands of Burgyn to the monks of Kinloss,
the boundary is described as passing "from the great oak in Malevin as far
as the _Rune Pictorum_," which is explained as "the Carne of the Pecht's
fieldis." In Highland districts small cairns used to be erected, even in
recent times, at places where the coffin of a distinguished person was
"rested" on its way to the churchyard. Memorial cairns are still
occasionally erected, as, for instance, the cairn raised in memory of the
prince consort at Balmoral, and "Maule's Cairn," in Glenesk, erected by the
earl of Dalhousie in 1866, in memory of himself and certain friends
specified by name in the inscription placed upon it. (See BARROW.)

CAIRNES, JOHN ELLIOTT (1823-1875), British political economist, was born at
Castle Bellingham, Ireland, in 1823. After leaving school he spent some
years in the counting-house of his father, a brewer. His tastes, however,
lay altogether in the direction of study, and he was permitted to enter
Trinity College, Dublin, where he took the degree of B.A. in 1848, and six
years later that of M.A. After passing through the curriculum of arts he
engaged in the study of law and was called to the Irish bar. But he felt no
very strong inclination for the legal profession, and during some years he
occupied himself to a large extent with contributions to the daily press,
treating of the social and economical questions that affected Ireland. He
devoted most attention to political economy, which he studied with great
thoroughness and care. While residing in Dublin he made the acquaintance of
Archbishop Whately, who conceived a very high respect for his character and
abilities. In 1856 a vacancy occurred in the chair of political economy at
Dublin founded by Whately, and Cairnes received the appointment. In
accordance with the regulations of the foundation, the lectures of his
first year's course were published. The book appeared in 1857 with the
title _Character and Logical Method of Political Economy_. It follows up
and expands J.S. Mill's treatment in the _Essays on some Unsettled
Questions in Political Economy_, and forms an admirable introduction to the
study of economics as a science. In it the author's peculiar powers of
thought and expression are displayed to the best advantage. Logical
exactness, precision of language, and firm grasp of the true nature of
economic facts, are the qualities characteristic of this as of all his
other works. If the book had done nothing more, it would still have
conferred inestimable benefit on political economists by its clear
exposition of the true nature and meaning of the ambiguous term "law." To
the view of the province and method of political economy expounded in this
early work the author always remained true, and several of his later
essays, such as those on _Political Economy and Land_, _Political Economy
and Laissez-Faire_, are but reiterations of the same doctrine. His next
contribution to economical science was a series of articles on the gold
question, published partly in _Fraser's Magazine_, in which the probable
consequences of the increased supply of gold attendant on the Australian
and Californian gold discoveries were analysed with great skill and
ability. And a critical article on M. Chevalier's work _On the Probable
Fall in the Value of Gold_ appeared in the _Edinburgh Review_ for July
1860.

In 1861 Cairnes was appointed to the professorship of political economy and
jurisprudence in Queen's College, Galway, and in the following year he
published his admirable work _The Slave Power_, one of the finest specimens
of applied economical philosophy. The inherent disadvantages of the
employment of slave labour were exposed with great fulness and ability, and
the conclusions arrived at have taken their place among the recognized
doctrines of political economy. The opinions expressed by Cairnes as to the
probable issue of the war in America were largely verified by the actual
course of events, and the appearance of the book had a marked influence on
the attitude taken by serious political thinkers in England towards the
southern states.

[v.04 p.0951]

During the remainder of his residence at Galway Professor Cairnes published
nothing beyond some fragments and pamphlets mainly upon Irish questions.
The most valuable of these papers are the series devoted to the
consideration of university education. His health, at no time very good,
was still further weakened in 1865 by a fall from his horse. He was ever
afterwards incapacitated from active exertion and was constantly liable to
have his work interfered with by attacks of illness. In 1866 he was
appointed professor of political economy in University College, London. He
was compelled to spend the session 1868-1869 in Italy but on his return
continued to lecture till 1872. During his last session he conducted a
mixed class, ladies being admitted to his lectures. His health soon
rendered it impossible for him to discharge his public duties; he resigned
his post in 1872, and retired with the honorary title of emeritus professor
of political economy. In 1873 his own university conferred on him the
degree of LL.D. He died at Blackheath, near London, on the 8th of July
1875.

The last years of his life were spent in the collection and publication of
some scattered papers contributed to various reviews and magazines, and in
the preparation of his most extensive and important work. The _Political
Essays_, published in 1873, comprise all his papers relating to Ireland and
its university system, together with some other articles of a somewhat
similar nature. The _Essays in Political Economy, Theoretical and Applied_,
which appeared in the same year, contain the essays towards a solution of
the gold question, brought up to date and tested by comparison with
statistics of prices. Among the other articles in the volume the more
important are the criticisms on Bastiat and Comte, and the essays on
_Political Economy and Land_, and on _Political Economy and Laissez-Faire_,
which have been referred to above. In 1874 appeared his largest work, _Some
Leading Principles of Political Economy, newly Expounded_, which is beyond
doubt a worthy successor to the great treatises of Smith, Malthus, Ricardo
and Mill. It does not expound a completed system of political economy; many
important doctrines are left untouched; and in general the treatment of
problems is not such as would be suited for a systematic manual. The work
is essentially a commentary on some of the principal doctrines of the
English school of economists, such as value, cost of production, wages,
labour and capital, and international values, and is replete with keen
criticism and lucid illustration. While in fundamental harmony with Mill,
especially as regards the general conception of the science, Cairnes
differs from him to a greater or less extent on nearly all the cardinal
doctrines, subjects his opinions to a searching examination, and generally
succeeds in giving to the truth that is common to both a firmer basis and a
more precise statement. The last labour to which he devoted himself was a
republication of his first work on the _Logical Method of Political
Economy_.

Taken as a whole the works of Cairnes formed the most important
contribution to economical science made by the English school since the
publication of J.S. Mill's _Principles_. It is not possible to indicate
more than generally the special advances in economic doctrine effected by
him, but the following points may be noted as establishing for him a claim
to a place beside Ricardo and Mill: (1) His exposition of the province and
method of political economy. He never suffers it to be forgotten that
political economy is a _science_, and consequently that its results are
entirely neutral with respect to social facts or systems. It has simply to
trace the necessary connexions among the phenomena of wealth and dictates
no rules for practice. Further, he is distinctly opposed both to those who
would treat political economy as an integral part of social philosophy, and
to those who have attempted to express economic facts in quantitative
formulae and to make economy a branch of applied mathematics. According to
him political economy is a mixed science, its field being partly mental,
partly physical. It may be called a positive science, because its premises
are facts, but it is hypothetical in so far as the laws it lays down are
only approximately true, _i.e._ are only valid in the absence of
counteracting agencies. From this view of the nature of the science, it
follows at once that the method to be pursued must be that called by Mill
the physical or concrete deductive, which starts from certain known causes,
investigates their consequences and verifies or tests the result by
comparison with facts of experience. It may, perhaps, be thought that
Cairnes gives too little attention to the effects of the organism of
society on economic facts, and that he is disposed to overlook what Bagehot
called the postulates of political economy. (2) His analysis of cost of
production in its relation to value. According to Mill, the universal
elements in cost of production are the wages of labour and the profits of
capital. To this theory Cairnes objects that wages, being remuneration, can
in no sense be considered as cost, and could only have come to be regarded
as cost in consequence of the whole problem being treated from the point of
view of the capitalist, to whom, no doubt, the wages paid represent cost.
The real elements of cost of production he looks upon as labour, abstinence
and risk, the second of these falling mainly, though not necessarily, upon
the capitalist. In this analysis he to a considerable extent follows and
improves upon Senior, who had previously defined cost of production as the
sum of the labour and abstinence necessary to production. (3) His
exposition of the natural or social limit to free competition, and of its
bearing on the theory of value. He points out that in any organized society
there can hardly be the ready transference of capital from one employment
to another, which is the indispensable condition of free competition; while
class distinctions render it impossible for labour to transfer itself
readily to new occupations. Society may thus be regarded as consisting of a
series of non-competing industrial groups, with free competition among the
members of any one group or class. Now the only condition under which cost
of production will regulate value is perfect competition. It follows that
the normal value of commodities--the value which gives to the producers the
average and usual remuneration--will depend upon cost of production only
when the exchange is confined to the members of one class, among whom there
is free competition. In exchange between classes or non-competing
industrial groups, the normal value is simply a case of international
value, and depends upon reciprocal demand, that is to say, is such as will
satisfy the equation of demand. This theory is a substantial contribution
to economical science and throws great light upon the general problem of
value. At the same time, it may be thought that Cairnes overlooked a point
brought forward prominently by Senior, who also had called attention to the
bearing of competition on the relation between cost of production and
value. The cost to the producer fixes the limit below which the price
cannot fall without the supply being affected; but it is the desire of the
consumer--_i.e._ what he is willing to give up rather than be compelled to
produce the commodity for himself--that fixes the maximum value of the
article. To treat the whole problem of natural or normal value from the
point of view of the producer is to give but a one-sided theory of the
facts. (4) His defence of the wages fund doctrine. This doctrine, expounded
by Mill in his _Principles_, had been relinquished by him, but Cairnes
still undertook to defend it. He certainly succeeded in removing from the
theory much that had tended to obscure its real meaning and in placing it
in its very best aspect. He also showed the sense in which, when treating
the problem of wages, we must refer to some fund devoted to the payment of
wages, and pointed out the conditions under which the wages fund may
increase or decrease. It may be added that his _Leading Principles_ contain
admirable discussions on trade unions and protection, together with a clear
analysis of the difficult theory of international trade and value, in which
there is much that is both novel and valuable. The _Logical Method_
contains about the best exposition and defence of Ricardo's theory of rent;
and the _Essays_ contain a very clear and formidable criticism of Bastiat's
economic doctrines.

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