Book: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 4

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See S. Laing, _Prehistoric Remains of Caithness_ (London and Edinburgh,
1866); James T. Calder, _History of Caithness_ (2nd edition, Wick); John
Home, _In and About Wick_ (Wick); Thomas Sinclair, _Caithness Events_
(Wick, 1899); _History of the Clan Gunn_ (Wick, 1890); J. Henderson,
_Caithness Family History_ (Edinburgh, 1884); Harvie-Brown, _Fauna of
Caithness_ (Edinburgh, 1887); Principal Miller, _Our Scandinavian
Forefathers_ (Thurso, 1872); Smiles, _Robert Dick, Botanist and Geologist_
(London, 1878); H. Morrison, _Guide to Sutherland and Caithness_ (Wick,
1883); A. Auld, _Ministers and Men in the Far North_ (Edinburgh, 1891).

CAIUS or GAIUS, pope from 283 to 296, was the son of Gaius, or of
Concordius, a relative of the emperor Diocletian, and became pope on the
17th of December 283. His tomb, with the original epitaph, was discovered
in the cemetery of Calixtus and in it the ring with which he used to seal
his letters (see Arringhi, _Roma subterr._, l. iv. _c._ xlviii. p. 426). He
died in 296.

CAIUS [_Anglice_ KEES, KEYS, etc.], JOHN (1510-1573), English physician,
and second founder of the present Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge,
was born at Norwich on the 6th of October 1510. He was admitted a student
at what was then Gonville Hall, Cambridge, where he seems to have mainly
studied divinity. After graduating in 1533, he visited Italy, where he
studied under the celebrated Montanus and Vesalius at Padua; and in 1541 he
took his degree in physic at Padua. In 1543 he visited several parts of
Italy, Germany and France; and returned to England. He was a physician in
London in 1547, and was admitted fellow of the College of Physicians, of
which he was for many years president. In 1557, being then physician to
Queen Mary, he enlarged the foundation of his old college, changed the name
from "Gonville Hall" to "Gonville and Caius College," and endowed it with
several considerable estates, adding an entire new court at the expense of
L1834. Of this college he accepted the mastership (24th of January 1558/9)
on the death of Dr Bacon, and held it till about a month before his death.
He was physician to Edward VI., Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth. He returned
to Cambridge from London for a few days in June 1573, about a month before
his death, and resigned the mastership to Dr Legge, a tutor at Jesus
College. He died at his London House, in St Bartholomew's, on the 29th
[v.04 p.0961] of July, 1573, but his body was brought to Cambridge, and
buried in the chapel under the well-known monument which he had designed.
Dr Caius was a learned, active and benevolent man. In 1557 he erected a
monument in St Paul's to the memory of Linacre. In 1564 he obtained a grant
for Gonville and Caius College to take the bodies of two malefactors
annually for dissection; he was thus an important pioneer in advancing the
science of anatomy. He probably devised, and certainly presented, the
silver caduceus now in the possession of Caius College as part of its
_insignia_; he first gave it to the College of Physicians, and afterwards
presented the London College with another.

His works are: _Annals of the College from 1555 to 1572_; translation of
several of Galen's works, printed at different times abroad. _Hippocrates
de Medicamenlis_, first discovered and published by Dr Caius; also _De
Ratione Victus_ (Lov. 1556, 8vo). _De Mendeti Methodo_ (Basel, 1554;
London, 1556, 8vo). _Account of the Sweating Sickness in England_ (London,
1556, 1721), (it is entitled _De Ephemera Britannica_). _History of the
University of Cambridge_ (London, 1568, 8vo; 1574, 4to, in Latin). _De
Thermis Britannicis_; but it is doubtful whether this work was ever
printed. _Of some Rare Plants and Animals_ (London, 1570). _De Canibus
Britannicis_ (1570, 1729). _De Pronunciation Graecae et Latinae Linguae_
(London, 1574); _De Libris propriis_ (London, 1570). He also wrote numerous
other works which were never printed.

For further details see the _Biographical History of Caius College_, an
admirable piece of historical work, by Dr John Venn (1897).

CAJAMARCA, or CAXAMARCA, a city of northern Peru, capital of a department
and province of the same name, 90 m. E. by N. of Pacasmayo, its port on the
Pacific coast. Pop. (1906, estimate) of the department, 333,310; of the
city, 9000. The city is situated in an elevated valley between the Central
and Western Cordilleras, 9400 ft. above sea level, and on the Eriznejas, a
small tributary of the Maranon. The streets are wide and cross at right
angles; the houses are generally low and built of clay. Among the notable
public buildings are the old parish church built at the expense of Charles
II. of Spain, the church of San Antonio, a Franciscan monastery, a nunnery,
and the remains of the palace of Atahualpa, the Inca ruler whom Pizarro
treacherously captured and executed in this place in 1533. The hot sulphur
springs of Pultamarca, called the Banos del Inca (Inca's baths) are a short
distance east of the city and are still frequented. Cajamarca is an
important commercial and manufacturing town, being the distributing centre
for a large inland region, and having long-established manufactures of
woollen and linen goods, and of metal work, leather, etc. It is the seat of
one of the seven superior courts of the republic, and is connected with the
coast by telegraph and telephone. A railway has been undertaken from
Pacasmayo, on the coast, to Cajamarca, and by 1908 was completed as far as
Yonan, 60 m. from its starting-point.

The department of Cajamarca lies between the Western and Central
Cordilleras and extends from the frontier of Ecuador S. to about 7 deg. S.
lat., having the departments of Piura and Lambayeque on the W. and Amazonas
on the E. Its area according to official returns is 12,542 sq. m. The upper
Maranon traverses the department from S. to N. The department is an
elevated region, well watered with a large number of small streams whose
waters eventually find their way through the Amazon into the Atlantic. Many
of its productions are of the temperate zone, and considerable attention is
given to cattle-raising. Coal is found in the province of Hualgayoc at the
southern extremity of the department, which is also one of the rich
silver-mining districts of Peru. Next to its capital the most important
town of the department is Cajamarquilla, whose population was about 6000 in
1906.

CAJATAMBO, or CAXATAMBO, a town and province of the department of Ancachs,
Peru, on the western slope of the Andes. Since 1896 the population of the
town has been estimated at 6000, but probably it does not exceed 4500. The
town is 110 m. N. by E. of Lima, in lat. 9 deg. 53' S., long. 76 deg. 57' W. The
principal industries of the province are the raising of cattle and sheep,
and the cultivation of cereals. Cochineal is a product of this region. Near
the town there are silver mines, in which a part of its population is
employed.

CAJETAN (GAETANUS), CARDINAL (1470-1534), was born at Gaeta in the kingdom
of Naples. His proper name was Tommaso[1] de Vio, but he adopted that of
Cajetan from his birthplace. He entered the order of the Dominicans at the
age of sixteen, and ten years later became doctor of theology at Padua,
where he was subsequently professor of metaphysics. A public disputation at
Ferrara (1494) with Pico della Mirandola gave him a great reputation as a
theologian, and in 1508 he became general of his order. For his zeal in
defending the papal pretensions against the council of Pisa, in a series of
works which were condemned by the Sorbonne and publicly burnt by order of
King Louis XII., he obtained the bishopric of Gaeta, and in 1517 Pope Leo
X. made him a cardinal and archbishop of Palermo. The year following he
went as legate into Germany, to quiet the commotions raised by Luther. It
was before him that the Reformer appeared at the diet of Augsburg; and it
was he who, in 1519, helped in drawing up the bull of excommunication
against Luther. Cajetan was employed in several other negotiations and
transactions, being as able in business as in letters. In conjunction with
Cardinal Giulio de' Medici in the conclave of 1521-1522, he secured the
election of Adrian Dedel, bishop of Tortosa, as Adrian VI. Though as a
theologian Cajetan was a scholastic of the older Thomist type, his general
position was that of the moderate reformers of the school to which Reginald
Pole, archbishop of Canterbury, also belonged; _i.e._ he desired to retain
the best elements of the humanist revival in harmony with Catholic
orthodoxy illumined by a revived appreciation of the Augustinian doctrine
of justification. Nominated by Clement VII. a member of the committee of
cardinals appointed to report on the "Nuremberg Recess," he recommended, in
opposition to the majority, certain concessions to the Lutherans, notably
the marriage of the clergy as in the Greek Church, and communion in both
kinds according to the decision of the council of Basel. In this spirit he
wrote commentaries upon portions of Aristotle, and upon the _Summa_ of
Aquinas, and towards the end of his life made a careful translation of the
Old and New Testaments, excepting Solomon's Song, the Prophets and the
Revelation of St John. In contrast to the majority of Italian cardinals of
his day, Cajetan was a man of austere piety and fervent zeal; and if, from
the standpoint of the Dominican idea of the supreme necessity of
maintaining ecclesiastical discipline, he defended the extremist claims of
the papacy, he also proclaimed that the pope should be "the mirror of God
on earth." He died at Rome on the 9th of August 1534.

See "Aktenstuecke ueber das Verhalten der roemischen Kurie zur Reformation,
1524-1531," in _Quellen und Forschungen_ (Koen. Preuss. Hist. Inst., Rome),
vol. iii. p. 1-20; T.M. Lindsay, _History of the Reformation_, vol. i.
(Edinburgh, 1906).

[1] He was christened Giacomo, but afterwards took the name of Tommaso in
honour of Thomas Aquinas.

CAJUPUT OIL, a volatile oil obtained by distillation from the leaves of the
myrtaceous tree _Melaleuca leucadendron_, and probably other species. The
trees yielding the oil are found throughout the Indian Archipelago, the
Malay Peninsula and over the hotter parts of the Australian continent; but
the greater portion of the oil is produced from Celebes Island. The name
cajuput is derived from the native _Kayuputi_ or white wood. The oil is
prepared from leaves collected on a hot dry day, which are macerated in
water, and distilled after fermenting for a night. This oil is extremely
pungent to the taste, and has the odour of a mixture of turpentine and
camphor. It consists mainly of cineol (see TERPENES), from which cajuputene
having a hyacinthine odour can be obtained by distillation with phosphorus
pentoxide. The drug is a typical volatile oil, and is used internally in
doses of 1/2 to 3 minims, for the same purposes as, say, clove oil. It is
frequently employed externally as a counter-irritant.

CAKCHIQUEL, a tribe of Central American Indians of Mayan stock, inhabiting
parts of Guatemala. Their name is said to be that of a native tree. At the
conquest they were found to be in a much civilized condition.

See D.G. Brinton, _Annals of the Cakchiquels_.

[v.04 p.0962] CALABAR (or OLD CALABAR), a seaport of West Africa in the
British protectorate of Southern Nigeria, on the left bank of the Calabar
river in 4 deg. 56' N., 8 deg. 18' E., 5 m. above the point where the river falls
into the Calabar estuary of the Gulf of Guinea. Pop. about 15,000. It is
the capital of the eastern province of the protectorate, and is in regular
steamship and telegraphic communication with Europe. From the beach, where
are the business houses and customs office, rise cliffs of moderate
elevation, and on the sides or summits of the hills are the principal
buildings, such as Government House, the European hospital and the church
of the Presbyterian mission. The valley between the hills is occupied by
the native quarter, called Duke Town. Here are several fine houses in
bungalow style, the residences of the chiefs or wealthy natives. Along the
river front runs a tramway connecting Duke Town with Queen Beach, which is
higher up and provided with excellent quay accommodation. Among the public
institutions are government botanical gardens, primary schools and a high
school. Palms, mangos and other trees grow luxuriantly in the gardens and
open spaces, and give the town a picturesque setting. The trade is very
largely centred in the export of palm oil and palm kernels and the import
of cotton goods and spirits, mostly gin. (See NIGERIA for trade returns.)

Calabar was the name given by the Portuguese discoverers of the 15th
century to the tribes on this part of the Guinea coast at the time of their
arrival, when as yet the present inhabitants were unknown in the district.
It was not till the early part of the 18th century that the Efik, owing to
civil war with their kindred and the Ibibio, migrated from the
neighbourhood of the Niger to the shores of the river Calabar, and
established themselves at Ikoritungko or Creek Town, a spot 4 m. higher up
the river. To get a better share in the European trade at the mouth of the
river a body of colonists migrated further down and built Obutoeng or Old
Town, and shortly afterwards a rival colony established itself at Aqua Akpa
or Duke Town, which thus formed the nucleus of the existing town. The
native inhabitants are still mainly Efik. They are pure negroes. They have
been for several generations the middle men between the white traders on
the coast and the inland tribes of the Cross river and Calabar district.
Christian missions have been at work among the Efiks since the middle of
the 19th century. Many of the natives are well educated, profess
Christianity and dress in European fashion. A powerful bond of union among
the Efik, and one that gives them considerable influence over other tribes,
is the secret society known as the Egbo (_q.v._). The chiefs of Duke Town
and other places in the neighbourhood placed themselves in 1884 under
British protection. From that date until 1906 Calabar was the headquarters
of the European administration in the Niger delta. In 1906 the seat of
government was removed to Lagos.

Until 1904 Calabar was generally, and officially, known as Old Calabar, to
distinguish it from New Calabar, the name of a river and port about 100 m.
to the east. Since the date mentioned the official style is Calabar simply.
Calabar estuary is mainly formed by the Cross river (_q.v._), but receives
also the waters of the Calabar and other streams. The Rio del Rey creek at
the eastern end of the estuary marks the boundary between (British) Nigeria
and (German) Cameroon. The estuary is 10 to 12 m. broad at its mouth and
maintains the same breadth for about 30 m.

CALABAR BEAN, the seed of a leguminous plant, _Physostigma venenosum_, a
native of tropical Africa. It derives its scientific name from a curious
beak-like appendage at the end of the stigma, in the centre of the flower;
this appendage though solid was supposed to be hollow (hence the name from
[Greek: phusa], a bladder, and _stigma_). The plant has a climbing habit
like the scarlet runner, and attains a height of about 50 ft. with a stem
an inch or two in thickness. The seed pods, which contain two or three
seeds or beans, are 6 or 7 in. in length; and the beans are about the size
of an ordinary horse bean but much thicker, with a deep chocolate-brown
colour. They constitute the E-ser-e or ordeal beans of the negroes of Old
Calabar, being administered to persons accused of witchcraft or other
crimes. In cases where the poisonous material did its deadly work, it was
held at once to indicate and rightly to punish guilt; but when it was
rejected by the stomach of the accused, innocence was held to be
satisfactorily established. A form of duelling with the seeds is also known
among the natives, in which the two opponents divide a bean, each eating
one-half; that quantity has been known to kill both adversaries. Although
thus highly poisonous, the bean has nothing in external aspect, taste or
smell to distinguish it from any harmless leguminous seed, and very
disastrous effects have resulted from its being incautiously left in the
way of children. The beans were first introduced into England in the year
1840; but the plant was not accurately described till 1861, and its
physiological effects were investigated in 1863 by Sir Thomas R. Fraser.

The bean usually contains a little more than 1% of alkaloids. Of these two
have been identified, one called _calabarine_, and the other, now a highly
important drug, known as _physostigmine_--or occasionally as _eserine_. The
British pharmacopoeia contains an alcoholic extract of the bean, intended
for internal administration; but the alkaloid is now always employed. This
is used as the sulphate, which has the empirical formula of
(C_{15}H_{21}N_3O_2)_2, H_2SO_4, plus an unknown number of molecules of
water. It occurs in small yellowish crystals, which are turned red by
exposure to light or air. They are readily soluble in water or alcohol and
possess a bitter taste. The dose is 1/60-1/30 grain, and should invariably
be administered by hypodermic injection. For the use of the oculist, who
constantly employs this drug, it is also prepared in _lamellae_ for
insertion within the conjunctival sac. Each of these contains
one-thousandth part of a grain of physostigmine sulphate, a quantity which
is perfectly efficient.

Physostigmine has no action on the unbroken skin. When swallowed it rapidly
causes a great increase in the salivary secretion, being one of the most
powerful _sialogogues_ known. It has been shown that the action is due to a
direct influence on the secreting gland-cells themselves. After a few
minutes the salivation is arrested owing to the constricting influence of
the drug upon the blood-vessels that supply the glands. There is also felt
a sense of constriction in the pharynx, due to the action of the drug on
its muscular fibres. A similar stimulation of the non-striped muscle in the
alimentary canal results in violent vomiting and purging, if a large dose
has been taken. Physostigmine, indeed, stimulates nearly all the
non-striped muscles in the body, and this action upon the muscular coats of
the arteries, and especially of the arterioles, causes a great rise in
blood-pressure shortly after its absorption, which is very rapid. The
terminals of the vagus nerve are also stimulated, causing the heart to beat
more slowly. Later in its action, the drug depresses the intra-cardiac
motor ganglia, causing prolongation of diastole and finally arrest of the
heart in dilatation. A large lethal dose kills by this action, but the
minimum lethal dose by its combined action on the respiration and the
heart. The respiration is at first accelerated by a dose of physostigmine,
but is afterwards slowed and ultimately arrested. The initial hastening is
due to a stimulation of the vagus terminals in the lung, as it does not
occur if these nerves are previously divided. The final arrest is due to
paralysis of the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata, hastened by a
quasi-asthmatic contraction of the non-striped muscular tissue in the
bronchial tubes, and by a "water-logging" of the lungs due to an increase
in the amount of bronchial secretion. It may here be stated that the
non-striped muscular tissue of the bladder, the uterus and the spleen is
also stimulated, as well as that of the iris (see below). It is only in
very large doses that the voluntary muscles are poisoned, there being
induced in them a tremor which may simulate ordinary convulsions. The
action is a direct one upon the muscular tissue (cf. the case of the
gland-cells), since it occurs in an animal whose motor nerves have been
paralysed by curare.

Consciousness is entirely unaffected by physostigmine, there being
apparently no action on any part of the brain above the medulla oblongata.
But the influence of the alkaloid upon the [v.04 p.0963] spinal cord is
very marked and characteristic. The reflex functions of the cord are
entirely abolished, and it has been experimentally shown that this is due
to a direct influence upon the cells in the anterior cornua. It is
precisely the reverse of the typical action of strychnine. Near the
termination of a fatal case there is a paralysis of the sensory columns of
the cord, so that general sensibility is lowered. The alkaloid calabarine
is, on the other hand, a stimulant of the motor and reflex functions of the
cord, so that only the pure alkaloid physostigmine and not any preparation
of Calabar bean itself should be used when it is desired to obtain this
action.

Besides the secretions already mentioned as being stimulated, the bile, the
tears and the perspiration are increased by the exhibition of this drug.

There remains only to consider its highly important action upon the eye.
Whether administered in the form of the official lamella or by subcutaneous
injection, physostigmine causes a contraction of the pupil more marked than
in the case of any other known drug. That this action is a direct and not a
nervous one is shown by the fact that if the eye be suddenly shaded the
pupil will dilate a little, showing that the nerves which cause dilatation
are still competent after the administration of physostigmine. Besides the
_sphincter pupillae_, the fibres of the ciliary muscle are stimulated.
There is consequently spasm of accommodation, so that clear vision of
distant objects becomes impossible. The intra-ocular tension is markedly
lowered. This action, at first sight somewhat obscure, is due to the
extreme pupillary contraction which removes the mass of the iris from
pressing upon the spaces of Fontana, through which the intraocular fluids
normally make a very slow escape from the eye into its efferent lymphatics.

There is a marked antagonism in nearly all important particulars between
the actions of physostigmine and of atropine. The details of this
antagonism, as well as nearly all our knowledge of this valuable drug, we
owe to Sir Thomas Fraser, who introduced it into therapeutics.

The clinical uses of physostigmine are based upon the facts of its
pharmacology, as above detailed. It has been recommended in cases of
chronic constipation, and of want of tone in the muscular wall of the
urinary bladder. It has undoubtedly been of value in many cases of tetanus,
in which it must be given in maximal doses. (The tetanus antitoxin should
invariably be employed as well.) Sir Thomas Fraser differs from nearly all
other authorities in regarding the drug as useless in cases of strychnine
poisoning, and the question must be left open. There is some doubtful
evidence of the value of the alkaloid in chorea. The oculist uses it for at
least six purposes. Its stimulant action on the iris and ciliary muscle is
employed when they are weak or paralysed. It is used in all cases where one
needs to reduce the intra-ocular tension, and for this and other reasons in
glaucoma. It is naturally the most efficient agent in relieving the
discomfort or intolerable pain of photophobia; and it is the best means of
breaking down adhesions of the iris, and of preventing prolapse of the iris
after injuries to the cornea. In fact it is hardly possible to
over-estimate its value in ophthalmology. The drug has been highly and
widely recommended in general paralysis, but there remains grave doubt as
to its utility in this disease.

_Toxicology._--The symptoms of Calabar bean poisoning have all been stated
above. The obvious antidote is atropine, which may often succeed; and the
other measures are those usually employed to stimulate the circulation and
respiration. Unfortunately the antagonism between physostigmine and
atropine is not perfect, and Sir Thomas Fraser has shown that in such cases
there comes a time when, if the action of the two drugs be summated, death
results sooner than from either alone. Thus atropine will save life after
three and a half times the fatal dose of physostigmine has been taken, but
will hasten the end if four or more times the fatal dose has been ingested.
Thus it would be advisable to use the physiological antidote only when the
dose of the poison--assuming estimation to be possible--was known to be
comparatively small.

CALABASH (from the Span. _calabaza_, a gourd or pumpkin, possibly derived
from the Pers. _kharlunza_, a melon), the shell of a gourd or pumpkin made
into a vessel for holding liquids; also a vessel of similar shape made of
other materials. It is the name of a tree (_Crescentia Cujete_) of tropical
America, whose gourd-like fruit is so hard that vessels made of it can be
used over a fire many times before being burned.

CALABASH TREE, a native of the West Indies and South America, known
botanically as _Crescentia Cujete_ (natural order, Bignoniaceae). The fruit
resembles a gourd, and has a woody rind, which after removal of the pulp
forms a calabash.

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