Book: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 4

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CALABOZO, or CALABOSO, an inland town of Venezuela, once capital of the
province of Caracas in the colonial period, and now capital of the state of
Guarico. Pop. (1891) 5618. Calabozo is situated in the midst of an
extensive _llano_ on the left bank of the Guarico river, 325 ft. above
sea-level and 123 m. S.S.W. of Caracas. The plain lies slightly above the
level of intersecting rivers and is frequently flooded in the rainy season;
in summer the heat is most oppressive, the average temperature being 88 deg.F.
The town is regularly laid out with streets crossing at right angles, and
possesses several fine old churches, a college and public school. It is
also a bishop's see, and a place of considerable commercial importance
because of its situation in the midst of a rich cattle-raising country. It
is said to have been an Indian town originally, and was made one of the
trading stations of the Compania Guipuzcoana in 1730. However, like most
Venezuelan towns, Calabozo made little growth during the 19th century. In
1820 the Spanish forces under Morales were defeated here by the
revolutionists under Bolivar and Paez.

CALABRESELLA (sometimes spelt Calabrasella), an Italian card-game ("the
little Calabrian game") for three players. All the tens, nines and eights
are removed from an ordinary pack; the order of the cards is three, two,
ace, king, queen, &c. In scoring the ace counts 3; the three 2; king, queen
and knave 1 each. The last trick counts 3. Each separate hand is a whole
game. One player plays against the other two, paying to each or receiving
from each the difference between the number of points that he and they
hold. Each player receives twelve cards, dealt two at a time. The remainder
form the stock, which is left face downwards. There are no trumps. The
player on the dealer's left declares first: he can either play or pass. The
dealer has the last option. If one person announces that he plays, the
others combine against him. If all decline to play, the deal passes, the
hands being abandoned. The single player may demand any "three" he chooses,
giving a card in exchange. If the three demanded is in the stock, no other
card may be asked for. If a player hold all the threes, he may demand a
two. The single player must take one card from the stock, in exchange for
one of his own (which is never exposed) and may take more. He puts out the
cards he wishes to exchange face downwards, and selects what he wishes from
the stock, which is now exposed; the rejected cards and cards left in the
stock form the "discard." The player on the dealer's left then leads. The
highest card wins the trick, there being no trumps. Players must follow
suit, if they can. The single player and the allies collect all the tricks
they win respectively. The winner of the last trick, besides scoring three,
adds the discard to his heap. The heaps are then searched for the scoring
cards, the scores are compared and the stakes paid. It is important to
remember that the value and the order of the cards are not the same, thus
the ace, whose value is 3, is only third as a trick-winner; also that it is
highly important to win the last trick. Thirty-five is the full score.

CALABRIA, a territorial district of both ancient and modern Italy.

(1) The ancient district consisted of the peninsula at its southeast
extremity, between the Adriatic Sea and the Gulf of Tarentum, ending in the
lapygian promontory (Lat. _Promunturium Sallentinum_; the village upon it
was called Leuca--Gr. [Greek: Leuka], white, from its colour--and is still
named S. Maria di Leuca) and corresponding in the main with the modern
province of Lecce, Brundisium and Tarentum being its most north-westerly
cities, though the boundary of the latter extends somewhat farther [v.04
p.0964] west. It is a low terrace of limestone, the highest parts of which
seldom reach 1500 ft.; the cliffs, though not high, are steep, and it has
no rivers of any importance, but despite lack of water it was (and is)
remarkably fertile. Strabo mentions its pastures and trees, and its olives,
vines and fruit trees (which are still the principal source of prosperity)
are frequently spoken of by the ancients. The wool of Tarentum and
Brundisium was also famous, and at the former place were considerable
dye-works. These two towns acquired importance in very early times owing to
the excellence of their harbours. Traces of a prehistoric population of the
stone and early bronze age are to be found all over Calabria. Especially
noticeable are the menhirs (_pietre fitte_) and the round tower-like
_specchie_ or _truddhi_, which are found near Lecce, Gallipolli and Muro
Leccese (and only here in Italy); they correspond to similar monuments, the
_perdas fittas_ and the _nuraghi_, of Sardinia, and the inter-relation
between the two populations which produced them requires careful study. In
272-266 B.C. we find six triumphs recorded in the Roman _fasti_ over the
Tarentini, Sallentini and Messapii, while the name Calabria does not occur;
but after the foundation of a colony at Brundisium in 246-245 B.C., and the
final subjection of Tarentum in 209 B.C., Calabria became the general name
for the peninsula. The population declined to some extent; Strabo (vi. 281)
tells us that in earlier days Calabria had been extremely populous and had
had thirteen cities, but that in his time all except Tarentum and
Brundisium, which retained their commercial importance, had dwindled down
to villages. The Via Appia, prolonged to Brundisium perhaps as early as 190
B.C., passed through Tarentum; the shorter route by Canusium, Barium and
Gnathia was only made into a main artery of communication by Trajan (see
APPIA, VIA). The only other roads were the two coast roads, the one from
Brundisium by Lupiae, the other from Tarentum by Manduria, Neretum, Aletium
(with a branch to Callipolis) and Veretum (hence a branch to Leuca), which
met at Hydruntum. Augustus joined Calabria to Apulia and the territory of
the Hirpini to form the second region of Italy. From the end of the second
century we find Calabria for juridical purposes associated either with
Apulia or with Lucania and the district of the Bruttii, while Diocletian
placed it under one _corrector_ with Apulia. The loss of the name Calabria
came with the Lombard conquest of this district, when it was transferred to
the land of the Bruttii, which the Byzantine empire still held.

(2) The modern Calabria consists of the south extremity of Italy (the "toe
of the boot" in the popular simile, while the ancient Calabria, with which
the present province of Lecce more or less coincides, is the "heel"),
bounded on the N. by the province of Potenza (Basilicata) and on the other
three sides by the sea. Area 5819 sq. m. The north boundary is rather
farther north than that of the ancient district of the Bruttii (_q.v._).
Calabria acquired its present name in the time of the Byzantine supremacy,
after the ancient Calabria had fallen into the hands of the Lombards and
been lost to the Eastern empire about A.D. 668. The name is first found in
the modern sense in Paulus Diaconus's _Historia Langobardorum_ (end of the
8th century). It is mainly mountainous; at the northern extremity of the
district the mountains still belong to the Apennines proper (the highest
point, the Monte Pollino, 7325 ft., is on the boundary between Basilicata
and Calabria), but after the plain of Sibari, traversed by the Crati (anc.
Crathis, a river 58 m. long, the only considerable one in Calabria), the
granite mountains of Calabria proper (though still called Apennines in
ordinary usage) begin. They consist of two groups. The first extends as far
as the isthmus, about 22 m. wide, formed by the gulfs of S. Eufemia and
Squillace; its highest point is the Botte Donato (6330 ft.). It is in
modern times generally called the Sila, in contradistinction to the second
(southern) group, the Aspromonte (6420 ft.); the ancients on the other hand
applied the name Sila to the southern group. The rivers in both parts of
the chain are short and unimportant. The mountain districts are in parts
covered with forest (though less so than in ancient times), still largely
government property, while in much of the rest there is good pasture. The
scenery is fine, though the country is hardly at all visited by travellers.
The coast strip is very fertile, and though some parts are almost deserted
owing to malaria, others produce wine, olive-oil and fruit (oranges and
lemons, figs, &c.) in abundance, the neighbourhood of Reggio being
especially fertile. The neighbourhood of Cosenza is also highly cultivated;
and at the latter place a school of agriculture has been founded, though
the methods used in many parts of Calabria are still primitive. Wheat,
rice, cotton, liquorice, saffron and tobacco are also cultivated. The coast
fisheries are important, especially in and near the straits of Messina.
Commercial organization is, however, wanting. The climate is very hot in
summer, while snow lies on the mountain-tops for at least half the year.
Earthquakes are frequent and have done great damage: that of the autumn of
1905 was very disastrous (O. Malagodi, _Calabria Desolata_, Rome, 1905),
but it was surpassed in its effects by the terrible earthquake of 1908, by
which Messina (_q.v._) was destroyed, and in Calabria itself Reggio and
numerous smaller places ruined. The railway communications are sufficient
for the coast districts; there are lines along both the east and west
coasts (the latter forms part of the through route by land from Italy to
Sicily, ferry-boats traversing the Strait of Messina with the through
trains on board) which meet at Reggio di Calabria. They are connected by a
branch from Marina di Catanzaro passing through Catanzaro to S. Eufemia;
and there is also a line from Sibari up the valley of the Crati to Cosenza
and Pietrafitta. The interior is otherwise untouched by railways; indeed
many of the villages in the interior can only be approached by paths; and
this is one of the causes of the economic difficulties of Calabria. Another
is the unequal distribution of wealth, there being practically no middle
class; a third is the injudicious disforestation which has been carried on
without regard to the future. The natural check upon torrents is thus
removed, and they sometimes do great damage. The Calabrian costumes are
still much worn in the remoter districts: they vary considerably in the
different villages. There is, and has been, considerable emigration to
America, but many of the emigrants return, forming a slightly higher class,
and producing a rise in the rate of payment to cultivators, which has
increased the difficulties of the small proprietors. The smallness and
large number of the communes, and the consequently large number of the
professional classes and officials, are other difficulties, which,
noticeable throughout Italy, are especially felt in Calabria. The
population of Calabria was 1,439,329 in 1901. The chief towns of the
province of Catanzaro were in 1901:---Catanzaro (32,005), Nicastro
(18,150), Monteleone (13,481), Cotrone (9545), total of province (1871)
412,226; (1901) 498,791; number of communes, 152; of the province of
Cosenza, Cosenza (20,857), Corigliano Calabro (15,379), Rossano (13,354),
S. Giovanni in Fiore (13,288), Castrovillari (9945), total of province
(1871) 440,468; (1901) 503,329, number of communes, 151; of the province of
Reggio, Reggio di Calabria (44,569), Palmi (13,346), Cittanova (11,782),
Gioiosa Ionica(11,200), Bagnara Calabra (11,136), Siderno Marina (10,775),
Gerace (10,572), Polistena (10,112); number of communes 106; total of
province (1871) 353,608; (1901) 437,209. A feature of modern Calabria is
the existence of several Albanian colonies, founded in the 15th century by
Albanians expelled by the Turks, who still speak their own language, wear
their national costume, and worship according to the Greek rite. Similar
colonies exist in Sicily, notably at Piana dei Greci near Palermo.

(T. AS.)

CALAFAT, a town of Rumania in the department of Doljiu; on the river
Danube, opposite the Bulgarian fortress of Vidin. Pop. (1900) 7113. Calafat
is an important centre of the grain trade, and is connected by a branch
line with the principal Walachian railways, and by a steam ferry with
Vidin. It was founded in the 14th century by Genoese colonists, who
employed large numbers of workmen (_Calfats_) in repairing ships--which
industry gave its name to the place. In 1854 a Russian force was defeated
at Calafat by the Turks under Ahmed Pasha, who surprised the enemy's camp.

CALAH (so in the Bible; _Kalah_ in the Assyrian inscriptions), an ancient
city situated in the angle formed by the Tigris and [v.04 p.0965] the upper
Zab, 19 m. S. of Nineveh, and one of the capitals of Assyria. According to
the inscriptions, it was built by Shalmaneser I. about 1300 B.C., as a
residence city in place of the older Assur. After that it seems to have
fallen into decay or been destroyed, but was restored by Assur-nasir-pal,
about 880 B.C., and from that time to the overthrow of the Assyrian power
it remained a residence city of the Assyrian kings. It shared the fate of
Nineveh, was captured and destroyed by the Medes and Babylonians toward the
close of the 7th century, and from that time has remained a ruin. The site
was discovered by Sir A.H. Layard, in 1845, in the _tel_ of Nimrud. Hebrew
tradition (in the J narrative, Genesis x. 11, 12) mentions Calah as built
by Nimrod. Modern Arabic tradition likewise ascribes the ruins, like those
of Birs Nimrud, near Babylon, to Nimrod, because they are the most
prominent ruins of that region. Similarly the ancient dike in the river
Tigris at this point is ascribed to Nimrod. The ruin mounds of Nimrud
consist of an oblong enclosure, formed by the walls of the ancient city, of
which fifty-eight towers have been traced on the N. and about fifty on the
E. In the S.W. corner of this oblong is an elevated platform in the form of
a rectangular parallelogram, some 600 yds. from N. to S. and 400 yds. from
E. to W., raised on an average about 40 ft. above the plain, with a lofty
cone 140 ft. high in the N.W. corner. This is the remains of the raised
platform of unbaked brick, faced with baked bricks and stone, on which
stood the principal palaces and temples of the city, the cone at the N.W.
representing the _ziggurat_, or stage-tower, of the principal temple.
Originally on the banks of the Tigris, this platform now stands some
distance E. of the river. Here Layard conducted excavations from 1845 to
1847, and again from 1849 to 1851. The means at his disposal were
inadequate, his excavations were incomplete and also unscientific in that
his prime object was the discovery of inscriptions and museum objects; but
he was wonderfully successful in achieving the results at which he aimed,
and the numerous statues, monuments, inscribed stones, bronze objects and
the like found by him in the ruins of Calah are among the most precious
possessions of the British Museum. Excavations were also conducted by
Hormuzd Rassan in 1852-1854, and again in 1878, and by George Smith in
1873. But while supplementing in some important respects Layard's
excavations, this later work added relatively little to his discoveries
whether of objects or of facts. The principal buildings discovered at Calah
are:--(_a_) the North-West palace, south of the _ziggurat_, one of the most
complete and perfect Assyrian buildings known, about 350 ft. square,
consisting of a central court, 129 ft. by 90 ft., surrounded by a number of
halls and chambers. This palace was originally constructed by
Assur-nasir-pal I. (885-860 B.C.), and restored and reoccupied by Sargon
(722-705 B.C.). In it were found the winged lions, now in the British
Museum, the fine series of sculptured bas-reliefs glorifying the deeds of
Assur-nasir-pal in war and peace, and the large collection of bronze
vessels and implements, numbering over 200 pieces; (_b_) the Central
palace, in the interior of the mound, toward its southern end, erected by
Shalmaneser II. (860-825 B.C.) and rebuilt by Tiglath-pileser III. (745-727
B.C.). Here were found the famous black obelisk of Shalmaneser, now in the
British Museum, in the inscription on which the tribute of Jehu, son of
Omri, is mentioned, the great winged bulls, and also a fine series of slabs
representing the battles and sieges of Tiglath-pileser; (_c_) the
South-West palace, in the S.W. corner of the platform, an uncompleted
building of Esarhaddon (681-668 B.C.), who robbed the North-West and
Central palaces, effacing the inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser, to obtain
material for his construction; (_d_) the smaller West palace, between the
South-West and the North-West palaces, a construction of Hadad-nirari or
Adadnirari III. (812-783 B.C.); (_e_) the South-East palace, built by
Assur-etil-ilani, after 626 B.C., for his harem, in the S.E. corner of the
platform, above the remains of an older similar palace of Shalmaneser;
(_f_) two small temples of Assur-nasir-pal, in connexion with the
_ziggurat_ in the N.W. corner; and (_g_) a temple called E-Zida, and
dedicated to Nebo, near the South-East palace. From the number of colossal
figures of Nebo discovered here it would appear that the cult of Nebo was a
favourite one, at least during the later period. The other buildings on the
E. side of the platform had been ruined by the post-Assyrian use of the
mound for a cemetery, and for tunnels for the storage and concealment of
grain. While the ruins of Calah were remarkably rich in monumental
material, enamelled bricks, bronze and ivory objects and the like, they
yielded few of the inscribed clay tablets found in such great numbers at
Nineveh and various Babylonian sites. Not a few of the astrological and
omen tablets in the Kuyunjik collection of the British Museum, however,
although found at Nineveh, were executed, according to their own testimony,
at Calah for the _rab-dup-sarre_ or principal librarian during the reigns
of Sargon and Sennacherib (716-684 B.C.). From this it would appear that
there was at that time at Calah a library or a collection of archives which
was later removed to Nineveh. In the prestige of antiquity and religious
renown, Calah was inferior to the older capital, Assur, while in population
and general importance it was much inferior to the neighbouring Nineveh.
There is no proper ground for regarding it, as some Biblical scholars of a
former generation did, through a false interpretation of the book of Jonah,
as a part or suburb of Nineveh.

See A.H. Layard, _Nineveh and its Remains_ (London, 1849); George Smith,
_Assyrian Discoveries_ (London, 1883); Hormuzd Rassam, _Ashur and the Land
of Nimrod_ (London and New York, 1897).

(J. P. PE.)

CALAHORRA (anc. _Calagurris_), a city of northern Spain, in the province of
Logrono; on the left bank of the river Cidacos, which enters the Ebro 3 m.
E., and on the Bilbao-Saragossa railway. Pop. (1900) 9475. Calahorra is
built on the slope of a hill overlooking the wide Ebro valley, which
supplies its markets with an abundance of grain, wine, oil and flax. Its
cathedral, which probably dates from the foundation of the see of Calahorra
in the 5th century, was restored in 1485, and subsequently so much altered
that little of the original Gothic structure survives. The Casa Santa,
annually visited by many thousands of pilgrims on the 31st of August, is
said to contain the bodies of the martyrs Emeterius and Celedonius, who
were beheaded in the 3rd or 4th century, on the site now occupied by the
cathedral. Their heads, according to local legend, were cast into the Ebro,
and, after floating out to sea and rounding the Iberian peninsula, are now
preserved at Santander.

The chief remains of the Roman Calagurris are the vestiges of an aqueduct
and an amphitheatre. Calagurris became famous in 76 B.C., when it was
successfully defended against Pompey by the adherents of Sertorius. Four
years later it was captured by Pompey's legate, Afranius, after starvation
had reduced the garrison to cannibalism. Under Augustus (31 B.C.-A.D. 14)
Calagurris received the privileges of Roman citizenship, and at a later
date it was given the additional name of _Nassica_ to distinguish it from
the neighbouring town of _Calagurris Fibularensis_, the exact site of which
is uncertain. The rhetorician Quintilian was born at Calagurris Nassica
about A.D. 35.

CALAIS, a seaport and manufacturing town of northern France, in the
department of Pas-de-Calais, 18 m. E.S.E. of Dover, and 185 m. N. of Paris
by the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 59,623. Calais, formerly a celebrated
fortress, is defended by four forts, not of modern construction, by a
citadel built in 1560, which overlooks it on the west, and by batteries.
The old town stands on an island hemmed in by the canal and the harbour
basins, which divide it from the much more extensive manufacturing quarter
of St Pierre, enveloping it on the east and south. The demolition of the
ramparts of Old Calais was followed by the construction of a new circle of
defences, embracing both the old and new quarters, and strengthened by a
deep moat. In the centre of the old town is the Place d'Armes, in which
stands the former hotel-de-ville (rebuilt in 1740, restored in 1867), with
busts of Eustache de St Pierre, Francis, duke of Guise, and Cardinal
Richelieu. The belfry belongs to the 16th and early 17th century. Close by
is the Tour du Guet, or watch-tower, used as a lighthouse until 1848. The
church of Notre-Dame, built during the English occupancy of Calais, has a
[v.04 p.0966] fine high altar of the 17th century; its lofty tower serves
as a landmark for sailors. A gateway flanked by turrets (14th century) is a
relic of the Hotel de Guise, built as a gild hall for the English
woolstaplers, and given to the duke of Guise as a reward for the recapture
of Calais. The modern town-hall and a church of the 19th century are the
chief buildings of the quarter of St Pierre. Calais has a board of
trade-arbitrators, a tribunal and a chamber of commerce, a commercial and
industrial school, and a communal college.

The harbour is entered from the roads by way of a channel leading to the
outer harbour which communicates with a floating basin 22 acres in extent,
on the east, and with the older and less commodious portion of the harbour
to the north and west of the old town. The harbour is connected by canals
with the river Aa and the navigable waterways of the department.

Calais is the principal port for the continental passenger traffic with
England carried on by the South-Eastern & Chatham and the Northern of
France railways. The average number of passengers between Dover and Calais
for the years 1902-1906 inclusive was 315,012. Trade is chiefly with the
United Kingdom. The principal exports are wines, especially champagne,
spirits, hay, straw, wool, potatoes, woven goods, fruit, glass-ware, lace
and metal-ware. Imports include cotton and silk goods, coal, iron and
steel, petroleum, timber, raw wool, cotton yarn and cork. During the five
years 1901-1905 the average annual value of exports was L8,388,000
(L6,363,000 in the years 1896-1900), of imports L4,145,000 (L3,759,000 in
1896-1900). In 1905, exclusive of passenger and mail boats, there entered
the port 848 vessels of 312,477 tons and cleared 857 of 305,284 tons, these
being engaged in the general carrying trade of the port. The main industry
of Calais is the manufacture of tulle and lace, for which it is the chief
centre in France. Brewing, saw-milling, boat-building, and the manufacture
of biscuits, soap and submarine cables are also carried on. Deep-sea and
coast fishing for cod, herring and mackerel employ over 1000 of the
inhabitants.

Calais was a petty fishing-village, with a natural harbour at the mouth of
a stream, till the end of the 10th century. It was first improved by
Baldwin IV., count of Flanders, in 997, and afterwards, in 1224, was
regularly fortified by Philip Hurepel, count of Boulogne. It was besieged
in 1346, after the battle of Crecy, by Edward III. and held out resolutely
by the bravery of Jean de Vienne, its governor, till after nearly a year's
siege famine forced it to surrender. Its inhabitants were saved from
massacre by the devotion of Eustache de St Pierre and six of the chief
citizens, who were themselves spared at the prayer of Queen Philippa. The
city remained in the hands of the English till 1558, when it was taken by
Francis, duke of Guise, at the head of 30,000 men from the ill-provided
English garrison, only 800 strong, after a siege of seven days. From this
time the _Calaisis_ or territory of Calais was known as the _Pays
Reconquis_. It was held by the Spaniards from 1595 to 1598, but was
restored to France by the treaty of Vervins.

CALAIS, a city and sub-port of entry of Washington county, Maine, U.S.A.,
on the Saint Croix river, 12 m. from its mouth, opposite Saint Stephens,
New Brunswick, with which it is connected by bridges. Pop. (1890)
7290;(1900) 7655 (1908 being foreign-born); (1910) 6116. It is served by
the Washington County railway (102.5 m. to Washington Junction, where it
connects with the Maine Central railway), and by steamboat lines to Boston,
Portland and Saint Johns. In the city limits are the post-offices of
Calais, Milltown and Red Beach. The city has a small public library. The
valley here is wide and deep, the banks of the river bold and picturesque,
and the tide rises and falls about 25 ft. The city has important interests
in lumber, besides foundries, machine shops, granite works--there are
several granite (notably red granite) quarries in the vicinity--a tannery,
and manufactories of shoes and calcined plaster. Big Island, now in the
city of Calais, was visited in the winter of 1604-1605 by Pierre du Guast,
sieur de Monts. Calais was first settled in 1779, was incorporated as a
town in 1809, and was chartered as a city in 1851.

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