Book: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 4

V >> Various >> Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 4




CALAIS and ZETES (the Boreadae), in Greek mythology, the winged twin sons
of Boreas and Oreithyia. On their arrival with the Argonauts at Salmydessus
in Thrace, they liberated their sister Cleopatra, who had been thrown into
prison with her two sons by her husband Phineus, the king of the country
(Sophocles, _Antigone_, 966; Diod. Sic. iv. 44). According to another
story, they delivered Phineus from the Harpies (_q.v._), in pursuit of whom
they perished (Apollodorus i. 9; iii. 15). Others say that they were slain
by Heracles near the island of Tenos, in consequence of a quarrel with
Tiphys, the pilot of the Argonauts, or because they refused to wait during
the search for Hylas, the favourite of Heracles (Hyginus, _Fab._, 14. 273;
schol. on Apollonius Rhodius i. 1304). They were changed by the gods into
winds, and the pillars over their tombs in Tenos were said to wave whenever
the wind blew from the north. Like the Harpies, Calais and Zetes are
obvious personifications of winds. Legend attributed the foundation of
Cales in Campania to Calais (Silius Italicus viii. 512).

CALAMINE, a mineral species consisting of zinc carbonate, ZnCO_3, and
forming an important ore of zinc. It is rhombohedral in crystallization and
isomorphous with calcite and chalybite. Distinct crystals are somewhat
rare; they have the form of the primitive rhombohedron (rr' = 72 deg. 20'), the
faces of which are generally curved and rough. Botryoidal and stalactitic
masses are more common, or again the mineral may be compact and granular or
loose and earthy. As in the other rhombohedral carbonates, the crystals
possess perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the rhombohedron. The
hardness is 5; specific gravity, 4.4. The colour of the pure mineral is
white; more often it is brownish, sometimes green or blue: a bright-yellow
variety containing cadmium has been found in Arkansas, and is known locally
as "turkey-fat ore." The pure material contains 52% of zinc, but this is
often partly replaced isomorphously by small amounts of iron and manganese,
traces of calcium and magnesium, and sometimes by copper or cadmium.

Calamine is found in beds and veins in limestone rocks, and is often
associated with galena and blende. It is a product of alteration of blende,
having been formed from this by the action of carbonated waters; or in many
cases the zinc sulphide may have been first oxidized to sulphate, which in
solution acted on the surrounding limestone, producing zinc carbonate. The
latter mode of origin is suggested by the frequent occurrence of calamine
pseudomorphous after calcite, that is, having the form of calcite crystals.
Deposits of calamine have been extensively mined in the limestones of the
Mendip Hills, in Derbyshire, and at Alston Moor in Cumberland. It also
occurs in large amount in the province of Santander in Spain, in Missouri,
and at several other places where zinc ores are mined. The best crystals of
the mineral were found many years ago at Chessy near Lyons; these are
rhombohedra of a fine apple-green colour. A translucent botryoidal calamine
banded with blue and green is found at Laurion in Greece, and has sometimes
been cut and polished for small ornaments such as brooches.

The name calamine (German, _Galmei_), from _lapis calaminaris_, a Latin
corruption of cadmia ([Greek: kadmia]), the old name for zinc ores in
general (G. Agricola in 1546 derived it from the Latin _calamus_, a reed),
was early used indiscriminately for the carbonate and the hydrous silicate
of zinc, and even now both species are included by miners under the same
term. The two minerals often closely resemble each other in appearance, and
can usually only be distinguished by chemical analysis; they were first so
distinguished by James Smithson in 1803. F.S. Beudant in 1832 restricted
the name calamine to the hydrous silicate and proposed the name
"smithsonite" for the carbonate, and these meanings of the terms are now
adopted by Dana and many other mineralogists. Unfortunately, however, in
England (following Brooke and Miller, 1852) these designations have been
reversed, calamine being used for the carbonate and smithsonite for the
silicate. This unfortunate confusion is somewhat lessened by the use of the
terms zinc-spar and hemimorphite (_q.v._) for the carbonate and silicate
respectively.

(L. J. S.)

[v.04 p.0967] CALAMIS, an Athenian sculptor of the first half of the 5th
century B.C. He made statues of Apollo the averter of ill, Hermes the
ram-bearer, Aphrodite and other deities, as well as part of a chariot group
for Hiero, king of Syracuse. His works are praised by ancient critics for
delicacy and grace, as opposed to breadth and force. Archaeologists are
disposed to regard the bronze charioteer recently found at Delphi as a work
of Calamis; but the evidence is not conclusive (see GREEK ART).

CALAMY, EDMUND, known as "the elder" (1600-1666), English Presbyterian
divine, was born of Huguenot descent in Walbrook, London, in February 1600,
and educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where his opposition to the
Arminian party, then powerful in that society, excluded him from a
fellowship. Nicholas Felton, bishop of Ely, however, made him his chaplain,
and gave him the living of St Mary, Swaffham Prior, which he held till
1626. He then removed to Bury St Edmunds, where he acted as lecturer for
ten years, retiring when his bishop (Wren) insisted on the observance of
certain ceremonial articles. In 1636 he was appointed rector (or perhaps
only lecturer) of Rochford in Essex, which was so unhealthy that he had
soon to leave it, and in 1639 he was elected to the perpetual curacy of St
Mary Aldermanbury in London, where he had a large following. Upon the
opening of the Long Parliament he distinguished himself in defence of the
Presbyterian cause, and had a principal share in writing the conciliatory
work known as _Smectymnuus_, against Bishop Joseph Hall's presentation of
episcopacy. The initials of the names of the several contributors formed
the name under which it was published, viz., S. Marshal, E. Calamy, T.
Young, M. Newcomen and W. Spurstow. Calamy was an active member in the
Westminster assembly of divines, and, refusing to advance to
Congregationalism, found in Presbyterianism the middle course which best
suited his views of theology and church government. He opposed the
execution of Charles I., lived quietly under the Commonwealth, and was
assiduous in promoting the king's return; for this he was afterwards
offered the bishopric of Coventry and Lichfield, but declined it, it is
said, on his wife's persuasion. He was made one of Charles's chaplains, and
vainly tried to secure the legal ratification of Charles's declaration of
the 25th of October 1660. He was ejected for Nonconformity in 1662, and was
so affected by the sight of the devastation caused by the great fire of
London that he died shortly afterwards, on the 29th of October 1666. He was
buried in the ruins of his church, near the place where the pulpit had
stood. His publications are almost entirely sermons. His eldest son
(Edmund), known as "the younger," was educated at Cambridge, and was
ejected from the rectory of Moreton, Essex, in 1662. He was of a retiring
disposition and moderate views, and died in 1685.

CALAMY, EDMUND (1671-1732), English Nonconformist divine, the only son of
Edmund Calamy "the younger," was born in London, in the parish of St Mary
Aldermanbury, on the 5th of April 1671. He was sent to various schools,
including Merchant Taylors', and in 1688 proceeded to the university of
Utrecht. While there, he declined an offer of a professor's chair in the
university of Edinburgh made to him by the principal, William Carstares,
who had gone over on purpose to find suitable men for such posts. After his
return to England in 1691 he began to study divinity, and on Baxter's
advice went to Oxford, where he was much influenced by Chillingworth. He
declined invitations from Andover and Bristol, and accepted one as
assistant to Matthew Sylvester at Blackfriars (1692). In June 1694 he was
publicly ordained at Annesley's meeting-house in Little St Helen's, and
soon afterwards was invited to become assistant to Daniel Williams in Hand
Alley, Bishopsgate. In 1702 he was chosen one of the lecturers in Salters'
Hall, and in 1703 he succeeded Vincent Alsop as pastor of a large
congregation in Westminster. In 1709 Calamy made a tour through Scotland,
and had the degree of doctor of divinity conferred on him by the
universities of Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Glasgow. Calamy's forty-one
publications are mainly sermons, but his fame rests on his nonconformist
biographies. His first essay was a table of contents to Baxter's
_Narrative_ of his life and times, which was sent to the press in 1696; he
made some remarks on the work itself and added to it an index, and,
reflecting on the usefulness of the book, he saw the expediency of
continuing it, as Baxter's history came no further than the year 1684.
Accordingly, he composed an abridgment of it, with an account of many other
ministers who were ejected after the restoration of Charles II.; their
apology, containing the grounds of their nonconformity and practice as to
stated and occasional communion with the Church of England; and a
continuation of their history until the year 1691. This work was published
in 1702. The most important chapter (ix.) is that which gives a detailed
account of the ministers ejected in 1662; it was afterwards published as a
distinct volume. He afterwards published a moderate defence of
Nonconformity, in three tracts, in answer to some tracts of Benjamin,
afterwards Bishop, Hoadly. In 1713 he published a second edition (2 vols.)
of his _Abridgment of Baxter's History_, in which, among various additions,
there is a continuation of the history through the reigns of William and
Anne, down to the passing of the Occasional Bill. At the end is subjoined
the reformed liturgy, which was drawn up and presented to the bishops in
1661. In 1718 he wrote a vindication of his grandfather and several other
persons against certain reflections cast upon them by Laurence Echard in
his _History of England_. In 1719 he published _The Church and the
Dissenters Compar'd as to Persecution_, and in 1728 appeared his
_Continuation of the Account_ of the ejected ministers and teachers, a
volume which is really a series of emendations of the previously published
account. He died on the 3rd of June 1732, having been married twice and
leaving six of his thirteen children to survive him. Calamy was a kindly
man, frankly self-conscious, but very free from jealousy. He was an able
diplomatist and generally secured his ends. His great hero was Baxter, of
whom he wrote three distinct memoirs. His eldest son Edmund (the fourth)
was a Presbyterian minister in London and died 1755; another son (Edmund,
the fifth) was a barrister who died in 1816; and this one's son (Edmund,
the sixth) died in 1850, his younger brother Michael, the last of the
direct Calamy line, surviving till 1876.

CALARASHI (_Calarasi_), the capital of the Jalomitza department, Rumania,
situated on the left bank of the Borcea branch of the Danube, amid wide
fens, north of which extends the desolate Baragan Steppe. Pop. (1900)
11,024. Calarashi has a considerable transit trade in wheat, linseed, hemp,
timber and fish from a broad mere on the west or from the Danube. Small
vessels carry cargo to Braila and Galatz, and a branch railway from
Calarashi traverses the Steppe from south to north, and meets the main line
between Bucharest and Constantza.

CALAS, JEAN (1698-1762), a Protestant merchant at Toulouse, whose legal
murder is a celebrated case in French history. His wife was an Englishwoman
of French extraction. They had three sons and three daughters. His son
Louis had embraced the Roman Catholic faith through the persuasions of a
female domestic who had lived thirty years in the family. In October 1761
another son, Antoine, hanged himself in his father's warehouse. The crowd,
which collected on so shocking a discovery, took up the idea that he had
been strangled by the family to prevent him from changing his religion, and
that this was a common practice among Protestants. The officers of justice
adopted the popular tale, and were supplied by the mob with what they
accepted as conclusive evidence of the fact. The fraternity of White
Penitents buried the body with great ceremony, and performed a solemn
service for the deceased as a martyr; the Franciscans followed their
example; and these formalities led to the popular belief in the guilt of
the unhappy family. Being all condemned to the rack in order to extort
confession, they appealed to the parlement; but this body, being as weak as
the subordinate magistrates, sentenced the father to the torture, ordinary
and extraordinary, to be broken alive upon the wheel, and then to be burnt
to ashes; which decree was carried into execution on the 9th of March 1762.
Pierre Calas, the surviving son, was banished for life; the rest were
acquitted. The distracted widow, however, found some friends, and among
them Voltaire, who laid her case before the council of state at [v.04
p.0968] Versailles. For three years he worked indefatigably to procure
justice, and made the Calas case famous throughout Europe (see VOLTAIRE).
Finally the king and council unanimously agreed to annul the proceeding of
the parlement of Toulouse; Calas was declared to have been innocent, and
every imputation of guilt was removed from the family.

See _Causes celebres_, tome iv.; Raoul Allier, _Voltaire et Calas, une
erreur judiciaire au XVIII^e siecle_ (Paris, 1898); and biographies of
Voltaire.

CALASH (from Fr. _caleche_, derived from Polish _kolaska_, a wheeled
carriage), a light carriage with a folding hood; the Canadian calash is
two-wheeled and has a seat for the driver on the splash-board. The word is
also used for a kind of hood made of silk stretched over hoops, formerly
worn by women.

CALASIAO, a town of the province of Pangasinan, Luzon, Philippine Islands,
on a branch of the Agno river, about 4 m. S. by E. of Dagupan, the N.
terminal of the Manila & Dagupan railway. Pop. (1903) 16,539. In 1903,
after the census had been taken, the neighbouring town of Santa Barbara
(pop. 10,367) was annexed to Calasiao. It is in the midst of a fertile
district and has manufactures of hats and various woven fabrics.

CALASIO, MARIO DI (1550-1620), Italian Minorite friar, was born at a small
town in the Abruzzi whence he took his name. Joining the Franciscans at an
early age, he devoted himself to Oriental languages and became an authority
on Hebrew. Coming to Rome he was appointed by Paul V., whose confessor he
was, to the chair of Scripture at Ara Coeli, where he died on the 1st of
February 1620. Calasio is known by his _Concordantiae sacrorum Bibliorum
hebraicorum_, published in 4 vols. (Rome, 1622), two years after his death,
a work which is based on Nathan's _Hebrew Concordance_ (Venice, 1523). For
forty years Calasio laboured on this work, and he secured the assistance of
the greatest scholars of his age. The _Concordance_ evinces great care and
accuracy. All root-words are treated in alphabetical order and the whole
Bible has been collated for every passage containing the word, so as to
explain the original idea, which is illustrated from the cognate usages of
the Chaldee, Syrian, Rabbinical Hebrew and Arabic. Calasio gives under each
Hebrew word the literal Latin translation, and notes any existing
differences from the Vulgate and Septuagint readings. An incomplete English
translation of the work was published in London by Romaine in 1747. Calasio
also wrote a Hebrew grammar, _Canones generates linguae sanctatae_ (Rome,
1616), and the _Dictionarium hebraicum_ (Rome, 1617).

CALATAFIMI, a town of the province of Trapani, Sicily, 30 m. W.S.W. of
Palermo direct (511/2 m. by rail). Pop. (1901) 11,426. The name of the town
is derived from the Saracenic castle of _Kalat-al-Fimi_ (castle of
Euphemius), which stands above it. The principal church contains a fine
Renaissance reredos in marble. Samuel Butler, the author of _Erewhon_, did
much of his work here. The battlefield where Garibaldi won his first
victory over the Neapolitans on the 15th of May 1860, lies 2 m. S.W.

CALATAYUD, a town of central Spain, in the province of Saragossa, at the
confluence of the rivers Jalon and Jiloca, and on the Madrid-Saragossa and
Calatayud-Sagunto railways. Pop. (1900) 11,526. Calatayud consists of a
lower town, built on the left bank of the Jalon, and an upper or Moorish
town, which contains many dwellings hollowed out of the rock above and
inhabited by the poorer classes. Among a number of ecclesiastical
buildings, two collegiate churches are especially noteworthy. Santa Maria,
originally a mosque, has a lofty octagonal tower and a fine Renaissance
doorway, added in 1528; while Santo Sepulcro, built in 1141, and restored
in 1613, was long the principal church of the Spanish Knights Templar. In
commercial importance Calatayud ranks second only to Saragossa among the
Aragonese towns, for it is the central market of the exceptionally fertile
expanse watered by the Jalon and Jiloca. About 2 m. E. are the ruins of the
ancient _Bilbilis_, where the poet Martial was born c. A.D. 40. It was
celebrated for its breed of horses, its armourers, its gold and its iron;
but Martial also mentions its unhealthy climate, due to the icy winds which
sweep down from the heights of Moncayo (7705 ft.) on the north. In the
middle ages the ruins were almost destroyed to provide stone for the
building of Calatayud, which was founded by a Moorish amir named Ayub and
named _Kalat Ayub_, "Castle of Ayub." Calatayud was captured by Alphonso I.
of Aragon in 1119.

CALATIA, an ancient town of Campania, Italy, 6 m. S.E. of Capua, on the Via
Appia, near the point where the Via Popillia branches off from it. It is
represented by the church of St. Giacomo alle Galazze. The Via Appia here,
as at Capua, abandons its former S.E. direction for a length of 2000 Oscan
ft. (18041/2 English ft.), for which it runs due E. and then resumes its
course S.E. There are no ruins, but a considerable quantity of debris; and
the pre-Roman necropolis was partially excavated in 1882. Ten shafts lined
with slabs of tufa which were there found may have been the approaches to
tombs or may have served as wells. The history of Calatia is practically
that of its more powerful neighbour Capua, but as it lay near the point
where the Via Appia turns east and enters the mountains, it had some
strategic importance. In 313 B.C. it was taken by the Samnites and
recaptured by the dictator Q. Fabius; the Samnites captured it again in
311, but it must have been retaken at an unknown date. In the 3rd century
we find it issuing coins with an Oscan legend, but in 211 B.C. it shared
the fate of Capua. In 174 we hear of its walls being repaired by the
censors. In 59 B.C. a colony was established here by Caesar.

See Ch. Huelsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopaedie_, iii. 1334 (Stuttgart,
1899).

CALAVERAS SKULL, a famous fossil cranium, reported by Professor J.D.
Whitney as found (1886) in the undisturbed auriferous gravels of Calaveras
county, California. The discovery at once raised the still discussed
question of "tertiary man" in the New World. Doubt has been thrown on the
genuineness of the find, as the age of the gravels is disputed and the
skull is of a type corresponding exactly with that of the present Indian
inhabitants of the district. Whitney assigns the fossil to late Tertiary
(Pliocene) times, and concludes that "man existed in California previous to
the cessation of volcanic activity in the Sierra Nevada, to the epoch of
the greatest extension of the glaciers in that region and to the erosion of
the present river canons and valleys, at a time when the animal and
vegetable creation differed entirely from what they now are...." The
specimen is preserved in the Peabody museum, Cambridge, Mass.

CALBAYOG, a town of the province of Samar, Philippine Islands, on the W.
coast at the mouth of the Calbayog river, about 30 m. N.W. of Catbalogan,
the capital, in lat. 12 deg. 3' N. Pop. (1903) 15,895. Calbayog has an
important export trade in hemp, which is shipped to Manila. Copra is also
produced in considerable quantity, and there is fine timber in the
vicinity. There are hot springs near the town. The neighbouring valleys of
the Gandara and Hippatan rivers are exceedingly fertile, but in 1908 were
uncultivated. The climate is very warm, but healthy. The language is
Visayan.

CALBE, or KALBE, a town of Germany, on the Saale, in Prussian Saxony. It is
known as Calbe-an-der-Saale, to distinguish it from the smaller town of
Calbe on the Milde in the same province. Pop. (1905) 12,281. It is a
railway junction, and among its industries are wool-weaving and the
manufacture of cloth, paper, stoves, sugar and bricks. Cucumbers and onions
are cultivated, and soft coal is mined in the neighbourhood.

CALCAR (or KALCKER), JOHN DE (1499-1546), Italian painter, was born at
Calcar, in the duchy of Cleves. He was a disciple of Titian at Venice, and
perfected himself by studying Raphael. He imitated those masters so closely
as to deceive the most skilful critics. Among his various pieces is a
Nativity, representing the angels around the infant Christ, which he
arranged so that the light emanated wholly from the child. He died at
Naples.

CALCEOLARIA, in botany, a genus belonging to the natural order
Scrophulariaceae, containing about 150 species of herbaceous or shrubby
plants, chiefly natives of the South American Andes of Peru and Chile. The
calceolaria of the present day has [v.04 p.0969] been developed into a
highly decorative plant, in which the herbaceous habit has preponderated.
The plants are now very generally raised annually from seed, which is sown
about the end of June in a mixture of loam, leaf-mould and sand, and, being
very small, must be only slightly covered. When the plants are large enough
to handle they are pricked out an inch or two apart into 3-inch or 5-inch
pots; when a little more advanced they are potted singly. They should be
wintered in a greenhouse with a night temperature of about 40 deg., occupying a
shelf near the light. By the end of February they should be moved into
8-inch or 10-inch pots, using a compost of three parts good turfy loam, one
part leaf-mould, and one part thoroughly rotten manure, with a fair
addition of sand. They need plenty of light and air, but must not be
subjected to draughts. When the pots get well filled with roots, they must
be liberally supplied with manure water. In all stages of growth the plants
are subject to the attacks of the green-fly, for which they must be
fumigated.

The so-called shrubby calceolarias used for bedding are increased from
cuttings, planted in autumn in cold frames, where they can be wintered,
protected from frost by the use of mats and a good layer of litter placed
over the glass and round the sides.

CALCHAQUI, a tribe of South American Indians, now extinct, who formerly
occupied northern Argentina. Stone and other remains prove them to have
reached a high degree of civilization. They offered a vigorous resistance
to the first Spanish colonists coming from Chile.

CALCHAS, of Mycenae or Megara, son of Thestor, the most famous soothsayer
among the Greeks at the time of the Trojan war. He foretold the duration of
the siege of Troy, and, when the fleet was detained by adverse winds at
Aulis, he explained the cause and demanded the sacrifice of Iphigeneia.
When the Greeks were visited with pestilence on account of Chryseis, he
disclosed the reasons of Apollo's anger. It was he who suggested that
Neoptolemus and Philoctetes should be fetched from Scyros and Lemnos to
Troy, and he was one of those who advised the construction of the wooden
horse. When the Greeks, on their journey home after the fall of Troy, were
overtaken by a storm, Calchas is said to have been thrown ashore at
Colophon. According to another story, he foresaw the storm and did not
attempt to return by sea. It had been predicted that he should die when he
met his superior in divination; and the prophecy was fulfilled in the
person of Mopsus, whom Calchas met in the grove of the Clarian Apollo near
Colophon. Having been beaten in a trial of soothsaying, Calchas died of
chagrin or committed suicide. He had a temple and oracle in Apulia.

Ovid, _Metam._ xii. 18 ff.; Homer, _Iliad_ i. 68, ii. 322; Strabo vi. p.
284, xiv. p. 642.

CALCITE, a mineral consisting of naturally occurring calcium carbonate,
CaCO_3, crystallizing in the rhombohedral system. With the exception of
quartz, it is the most widely distributed of minerals, whilst in the
beautiful development and extraordinary variety of form of its crystals it
is surpassed by none. In the massive condition it occurs as large
rock-masses (marble, limestone, chalk) which are often of organic origin,
being formed of the remains of molluscs, corals, crinoids, &c., the hard
parts of which consist largely of calcite.

Copyright (c) 2007. knowncrafts.net. All rights reserved.