Book: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 4

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For the past two centuries the art of bull-fighting has developed gradually
into the spectacle of to-day. Imitations of the Spanish bull-fights have
been repeatedly introduced into France and Italy, but the cruelty of the
sport has prevented its taking firm root. In Portugal a kind of
bull-baiting is practised, in which neither man nor beast is much hurt, the
bulls having their horns truncated and padded and never being killed. In
Spain many vain attempts have been made to abolish the sport, by Ferdinand
II. himself, instigated by his wife Isabella, by Charles III., by Ferdinand
VI., and by Charles IV.; and several popes placed its devotees under the
ban of excommunication with no perceptible effect upon its popularity.
Before the introduction of railways there were comparatively few bull-rings
(_plazas de toros_) in Spain, but these have largely multiplied in recent
years, in both Spain and Spanish America. At the present day nearly every
larger town and city in Spain has its _plaza de toros_ (about 225
altogether), built in the form of the Roman circuses with an oval open
arena covered with sand, surrounded by a stout fence about 6 ft. high.
Between this and the seats of the spectators is a narrow passage-way, where
those bull-fighters who are not at the moment engaged take their stations.
The _plazas de toros_ are of all sizes, from that of Madrid, which holds
more than 12,000 spectators, down to those seating only two or three
thousand. Every bull-ring has its hospital for the wounded, and its chapel
where the _toreros_ (bull-fighters) receive the Holy Eucharist.

The bulls used for fighting are invariably of well-known lineage and are
reared in special establishments (_vacadas_), the most celebrated of which
is now that of the duke of Veragua in Andalusia. When quite young they are
branded with the emblems of their owners, and later are put to a test of
their courage, only those that show a fighting spirit being trained
further. When full grown, the health, colour, weight, character of horns,
and action in attack are all objects of the keenest observation and study.
The best bulls are worth from L40 to L60. About 1300 bulls are killed
annually in Spain. Bull-fighters proper, most of whom are Andalusians,
consist of _espadas_ (or _matadores_), _banderilleros_ and _picadores_, in
addition to whom there are numbers of assistants (_chulos_), drivers and
other servants. For each bull-fight two or three _espadas_ are engaged,
each providing his own quadrille (_cuadrilla_), composed of several
_banderilleros_ and _picadores_. Six bulls are usually killed during one
_corrida_ (bull-fight), the _espadas_ engaged taking them in turn. The
_espada_ must have passed through a trying novitiate in the art at the
royal school of bull-fighting, after which he is given his _alternativa_,
or licence.

The bull-fight begins with a grand entry of all the bull-fighters with
_alguaciles_, municipal officers in ancient costume, at the head, followed,
in three rows, by the _espadas, banderilleros, picadores, chulos_ and the
richly caparisoned triple mule-team used to drag from the arena the
carcasses of the slain bulls and horses. The greatest possible brilliance
of costume and accoutrements is aimed at, and the picture presented is one
of dazzling colour. The _espadas_ and _banderilleros_ wear short jackets
and small-clothes of satin richly embroidered in gold and silver, with
[v.04 p.0790] light silk stockings and heelless shoes; the _picadores_
(pikemen on horseback) usually wear yellow, and their legs are enclosed in
steel armour covered with leather as a protection against the horns of the
bull.

The fight is divided into three divisions (_suertes_). When the opening
procession has passed round the arena the president of the _corrida_,
usually some person of rank, throws down to one of the _alguaciles_ the key
to the _toril_, or bull-cells. As soon as the supernumeraries have left the
ring, and the _picadores_, mounted upon blindfolded horses in wretched
condition, have taken their places against the barrier, the door of the
_toril_ is opened, and the bull, which has been goaded into fury by the
affixing to his shoulder of an iron pin with streamers of the colours of
his breeder attached, enters the ring. Then begins the _suerte de picar_,
or division of lancing. The bull at once attacks the mounted _picadores_,
ripping up and wounding the horses, often to the point of complete
disembowelment. As the bull attacks the horse, the _picador_, who is armed
with a short-pointed, stout pike (_garrocha_), thrusts this into the bull's
back with all his force, with the usual result that the bull turns its
attention to another _picador_. Not infrequently, however, the rush of the
bull and the blow dealt to the horse is of such force as to overthrow both
animal and rider, but the latter is usually rescued from danger by the
_chulos_ and _banderilleros_, who, by means of their red cloaks (_capas_),
divert the bull from the fallen _picador_, who either escapes from the ring
or mounts a fresh horse. The number of horses killed in this manner is one
of the chief features of the fight, a bull's prowess being reckoned
accordingly. About 6000 horses are killed every year in Spain. At the sound
of a trumpet the _picadores_ retire from the ring, the dead horses are
dragged out, and the second division of the fight, the _suerte de
banderillear_, or planting the darts, begins. The _banderillas_ are barbed
darts about 18 in. long, ornamented with coloured paper, one being held in
each hand of the bull-fighter, who, standing 20 or 30 yds. from the bull,
draws its attention to him by means of violent gestures. As the bull
charges, the _banderillero_ steps towards him, dexterously plants both
darts in the beast's neck, and draws aside in the nick of time to avoid its
horns. Four pairs of _banderillas_ are planted in this way, rendering the
bull mad with rage and pain. Should the animal prove of a cowardly nature
and refuse to attack repeatedly, _banderillas de fuego_ (fire) are used.
These are furnished with fulminating crackers, which explode with terrific
noise as the bull careers about the ring. During this division numerous
manoeuvres are sometimes indulged in for the purpose of tiring the bull
out, such as leaping between his horns, vaulting over his back with the
_garrocha_ as he charges, and inviting his rushes by means of elaborate
flauntings of the cloak (_floreos_, flourishes).

Another trumpet-call gives the signal for the final division of the fight,
the _suerte de matar_ (killing). This is carried out by the _espada_,
alone, his assistants being present only in the case of emergency or to get
the bull back to the proper part of the ring, should he bolt to a distance.
The _espada_, taking his stand before the box of the president, holds aloft
in his left hand sword and _muleta_ and in his right his hat, and in set
phrases formally dedicates (_brinde_) the death of the bull to the
president or some other personage of rank, finishing by tossing his hat
behind his back and proceeding bareheaded to the work of killing the bull.
This is a process accompanied by much formality. The _espada_, armed with
the _estoque_, a sword with a heavy flat blade, brings the bull into the
proper position by means of passes with the _muleta_, a small red silk flag
mounted on a short staff, and then essays to kill him with a single thrust,
delivered through the back of the neck close to the head and downward into
the heart. This stroke is a most difficult one, requiring long practice as
well as great natural dexterity, and very frequently fails of its object,
the killing of the bull often requiring repeated thrusts. The stroke
(_estocada_) is usually given _a volapie_ (half running), the _espada_
delivering the thrust while stepping forward, the bull usually standing
still. Another method is _recibiendo_ (receiving), the _espada_ receiving
the onset of the bull upon the point of his sword. Should the bull need a
_coup de grace_, it is given by a _chulo_, called _puntillero_, with a
dagger which pierces the spinal marrow. The dead beast is then dragged out
of the ring by the triple mule-team, while the _espada_ makes a tour of
honour, being acclaimed, in the case of a favourite, with the most
extravagant enthusiasm. The ring is then raked over, a second bull is
introduced, and the spectacle begins anew. Upon great occasions, such as a
coronation, a _corrida_ in the ancient style is given by amateurs, who are
clad in gala costumes without armour of any kind, and mounted upon steeds
of good breed and condition. They are armed with sharp lances, with which
they essay to kill the bull while protecting themselves and their steeds
from his horns. As the bulls in these encounters have not been weakened by
many wounds and tired out by much running, the performances of the
gentlemen fighters are remarkable for pluck and dexterity.

See Moratin, _Origen y Progeso de las Fiestas de Toros_; Bedoya's _Historia
del Toreo_; J.S. Lozano, _Manual de Tauromaquia_ (Seville, 1882); A.
Chapman and W.T. Buck, _Wild Spain_ (London, 1893).

BULLFINCH (_Pyrrhula vulgaris_), the ancient English name given to a bird
belonging to the family _Fringillidae_ (see FINCH), of a bluish-grey and
black colour above, and generally of a bright tile-red beneath, the female
differing chiefly in having its under-parts chocolate-brown. It is a shy
bird, not associating with other species, and frequents well-wooded
districts, being very rarely seen on moors or other waste lands. It builds
a shallow nest composed of twigs lined with fibrous roots, on low trees or
thick underwood, only a few feet from the ground, and lays four or five
eggs of a bluish-white colour speckled and streaked with purple. The young
remain with their parents during autumn and winter, and pair in spring, not
building their nests, however, till May. In spring and summer they feed on
the buds of trees and bushes, choosing, it is said, such only as contain
the incipient blossom, and thus doing immense injury to orchards and
gardens. In autumn and winter they feed principally on wild fruits and on
seeds. The note of the bullfinch, in the wild state, is soft and pleasant,
but so low as scarcely to be audible; it possesses, however, great powers
of imitation, and considerable memory, and can thus be taught to whistle a
variety of tunes. Bullfinches are very abundant in the forests of Germany,
and it is there that most of the piping bullfinches are trained. They are
taught continuously for nine months, and the lesson is repeated throughout
the first moulting, as during that change the young birds are apt to forget
all that they have previously acquired. The bullfinch is a native of the
northern countries of Europe, occurring in Italy and other southern parts
only as a winter visitor. White and black varieties are occasionally met
with; the latter are often produced by feeding the bullfinch exclusively on
hempseed, when its plumage gradually changes to black. It rarely breeds in
confinement, and hybrids between it and the canary have been produced on
but few occasions.

BULLI, a town of Camden county, New South Wales, Australia, 59 m. by rail
S. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 2500. It is the headquarters of the Bulli Mining
Company, whose coal-mine on the flank of the Illawarra Mountains is worked
by a tunnel, 2 m. long, driven into the heart of the mountain. From this
tunnel the coal is conveyed by rail for 11/2 m. to a pier, whence it is
shipped to Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane by a fleet of steam colliers. The
beautiful Bulli Pass, 1000 ft. above the sea, over the Illawarra range, is
one of the most attractive tourist resorts in Australia.

BULLINGER, HEINRICH (1504-1575), Swiss reformer, son of Dean Heinrich
Bullinger by his wife Anna (Wiederkehr), was born at Bremgarten, Aargau, on
the 18th of July 1504. He studied at Emmerich and Cologne, where the
teaching of Peter Lombard led him, through Augustine and Chrysostom, to
first-hand study of the Bible. Next the writings of Luther and Melanchthon
appealed to him. Appointed teacher (1522) in the cloister school of Cappel,
he lectured on Melanchthon's _Loci Communes_ (1521). He heard Zwingli at
Zuerich in 1527, and next year accompanied him to the disputation at Berne.
He was made pastor of Bremgarten in 1529, and married Anna Adlischweiler, a
nun, by whom he had eleven children. After the battle [v.04 p.0791] of
Cappel (11th of October 1531), in which Zwingli fell, he left Bremgarten.
On the 9th of December 1531 he was chosen to succeed Zwingli as chief
pastor of Zuerich. A strong writer and thinker, his spirit was essentially
unifying and sympathetic, in an age when these qualities won little
sympathy. His controversies on the Lord's Supper with Luther, and his
correspondence with Lelio Sozini (see SOCINUS), exhibit, in different
connexions, his admirable mixture of dignity and tenderness. With Calvin he
concluded (1549) the _Consensus Tigurinus_ on the Lord's Supper. The
(second) Helvetic Confession (1566) adopted in Switzerland, Hungary,
Bohemia and elsewhere, was his work. The volumes of the _Zurich Letters_,
published by the Parker Society, testify to his influence on the English
reformation in later stages. Many of his sermons were translated into
English (reprinted, 4 vols., 1849). His works, mainly expository and
polemical, have not been collected. He died at Zuerich on the 17th of
September 1575.

See Carl Pestalozzi, _Leben_ (1858); Raget Christoffel, _H. Bullinger_
(1875); Justus Heer, in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1897).

(A. GO.*)

BULLION, a term applied to the gold and silver of the mines brought to a
standard of purity. The word appears in an English act of 1336 in the
French form "puissent sauvement porter a les exchanges ou bullion ...
argent en plate, vessel d'argent, &c."; and apparently it is connected with
_bouillon_, the sense of "boiling" being transferred in English to the
melting of metal, so that _bullion_ in the passage quoted meant
"melting-house" or "mint." The first recorded instance of the use of the
word for precious metal as such in the mass is in an act of 1451. From the
use of gold and silver as a medium of exchange, it followed that they
should approximate in all nations to a common degree of fineness; and
though this is not uniform even in coins, yet the proportion of alloy in
silver, and of carats alloy to carats fine in gold, has been reduced to
infinitesimal differences in the bullion of commerce, and is a prime
element of value even in gold and silver plate, jewelry, and other articles
of manufacture. Bullion, whether in the form of coins, or of bars and
ingots stamped, is subject, as a general rule of the London market, not
only to weight but to assay, and receives a corresponding value.

BULLOCK, WILLIAM (c. 1657-c. 1740), English actor, "of great glee and much
comic vivacity," was the original Clincher in Farquhar's _Constant Couple_
(1699), Boniface in _The Beaux' Stratagem_ (1707), and Sir Francis Courtall
in Pavener's _Artful Wife_ (1717). He played at all the London theatres of
his time, and in the summer at a booth at Bartholomew Fair. He had three
sons, all actors, of whom the eldest was Christopher Bullock (c.
1690-1724), who at Drury Lane, the Haymarket and Lincoln's Inn Fields
displayed "a considerable versatility of talent." Christopher created a few
original parts in comedies and farces of which he was the author or
adapter:--_A Woman's Revenge_ (1715); _Slip_; _Adventures of Half an Hour_
(1716); _The Cobbler of Preston_; _Woman's a Riddle_; _The Perjurer_
(1717); and _The Traitor_ (1718).

BULLROARER, the English name for an instrument made of a small flat slip of
wood, through a hole in one end of which a string is passed; swung round
rapidly it makes a booming, humming noise. Though treated as a toy by
Europeans, the bullroarer has had the highest mystic significance and
sanctity among primitive people. This is notably the case in Australia,
where it figures in the initiation ceremonies and is regarded with the
utmost awe by the "blackfellows." Their bullroarers, or sacred "tunduns,"
are of two types, the "grandfather" or "man tundun," distinguished by its
deep tone, and the "woman tundun," which, being smaller, gives forth a
weaker, shriller note. Women or girls, and boys before initiation, are
never allowed to see the tundun. At the Bora, or initiation ceremonies, the
bullroarer's hum is believed to be the voice of the "Great Spirit," and on
hearing it the women hide in terror. A Maori bullroarer is preserved in the
British Museum, and travellers in Africa state that it is known and held
sacred there. Thus among the Egba tribe of the Yoruba race the supposed
"Voice of Oro," their god of vengeance, is produced by a bullroarer, which
is actually worshipped as the god himself. The sanctity of the bullroarer
has been shown to be very widespread. There is no doubt that the rhombus
[Greek: rhombos] which was whirled at the Greek mysteries was one. Among
North American Indians it was common. At certain Moqui ceremonies the
procession of dancers was led by a priest who whirled a bullroarer. The
instrument has been traced among the Tusayan, Apache and Navaho Indians
(J.G. Bourke, _Ninth Annual Report of Bureau of Amer. Ethnol._, 1892),
among the Koskimo of British Columbia (Fr. Boas, "Social Organization, &c.,
of the Kwakiutl Indians," _Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1895_),
and in Central Brazil. In New Guinea, in some of the islands of the Torres
Straits (where it is swung as a fishing-charm), in Ceylon (where it is used
as a toy and figures as a sacred instrument at Buddhist festivals), and in
Sumatra (where it is used to induce the demons to carry off the soul of a
woman, and so drive her mad), the bullroarer is also found. Sometimes, as
among the Minangkabos of Sumatra, it is made of the frontal bone of a man
renowned for his bravery.

See A. Lang, _Custom and Myth_ (1884); J.D.E. Schmeltz, _Das Schwirrholz_
(Hamburg, 1896); A.C. Haddon, _The Study of Man_, and in the _Journ.
Anthrop. Instit._ xix., 1890; G.M.C. Theal, _Kaffir Folk-Lore_; A.B. Ellis,
_Yoruba-Speaking Peoples_ (1894); R.C. Codrington, _The Melanesians_
(1891).

BULL RUN, a small stream of Virginia, U.S.A., which gave the name to two
famous battles in the American Civil War.

(1) The first battle of Bull Run (called by the Confederates Manassas) was
fought on the 21st of July 1861 between the Union forces under
Brigadier-General Irvin McDowell and the Confederates under General Joseph
E. Johnston. Both armies were newly raised and almost untrained. After a
slight action on the 18th at Blackburn's Ford, the two armies prepared for
a battle. The Confederates were posted along Bull Run, guarding all the
passages from the Stone Bridge down to the railway bridge. McDowell's
forces rendezvoused around Centreville, and both commanders, sensible of
the temper of their troops, planned a battle for the 21st. On his part
McDowell ordered one of his four divisions to attack the Stone Bridge, two
to make a turning movement via Sudley Springs, the remaining division
(partly composed of regular troops) was to be in reserve and to watch the
lower fords. The local Confederate commander, Brigadier-General P.G.T.
Beauregard, had also intended to advance, and General Johnston, who arrived
by rail on the evening of the 20th with the greater part of a fresh army,
and now assumed command of the whole force, approved an offensive movement
against Centreville for the 21st; but orders miscarried, and the Federal
attack opened before the movement had begun. Johnston and Beauregard then
decided to fight a defensive battle, and hurried up troops to support the
single brigade of Evans which held the Stone Bridge. Thus there was no
serious fighting at the lower fords of Bull Run throughout the day.

[Illustration]

The Federal staff was equally inexperienced, and the divisions [v.04
p.0792] engaged in the turning movement met with many unnecessary checks.
At 6 A.M., when the troops told off for the frontal attack appeared before
the Stone Bridge, the turning movement was by no means well advanced. Evans
had time to change position so as to command both the Stone Bridge and
Sudley Springs, and he was promptly supported by the brigades of Bee,
Bartow and T.J. Jackson. About 9.30 the leading Federal brigade from Sudley
Springs came into action, and two hours later Evans, Bee and Bartow had
been driven off the Matthews hill in considerable confusion. But on the
Henry House hill Jackson's brigade stood, as General Bee said to his men,
"like a stone wall," and the defenders rallied, though the Federals were
continually reinforced. The fighting on the Henry House hill was very
severe, but McDowell, who dared not halt to re-form his enthusiastic
volunteers, continued to attack. About 1.30 P.M. he brought up two regular
batteries to the fighting line; but a Confederate regiment, being mistaken
for friendly troops and allowed to approach, silenced the guns by close
rifle fire, and from that time, though the hill was taken and retaken
several times, the Federal attack made no further headway. At 2.45 more of
Beauregard's troops had come up; Jackson's brigade charged with the
bayonet, and at the same time the Federals were assailed in flank by the
last brigades of Johnston's army, which arrived at the critical moment from
the railway. They gave way at once, tired out, and conscious that the day
was lost, and after one rally melted away slowly to the rear, the handful
of regulars alone keeping their order. But when, at the defile of the Cub
Run, they came under shell fire the retreat became a panic flight to the
Potomac. The victors were too much exhausted to pursue, and the U.S.
regulars of the reserve division formed a strong and steady rearguard. The
losses were--Federals, 2896 men out of about 18,500 engaged; Confederates,
1982 men out of 18,000.

(2) The operations of the last days of August 1862, which include the
second battle of Bull Run (second Manassas), are amongst the most
complicated of the war. At the outset the Confederate general Lee's army
(Longstreet's and Jackson's corps) lay on the Rappahannock, faced by the
Federal Army of Virginia under Major-General John Pope, which was to be
reinforced by troops from McClellan's army to a total strength of 150,000
men as against Lee's 60,000. Want of supplies soon forced Lee to move,
though not to retreat, and his plan for attacking Pope was one of the most
daring in all military history. Jackson with half the army was despatched
on a wide turning movement which was to bring him via Salem and
Thoroughfare Gap to Manassas Junction in Pope's rear; when Jackson's task
was accomplished Lee and Longstreet were to follow him by the same route.
Early on the 25th of August Jackson began his march round the right of
Pope's army; on the 26th the column passed Thoroughfare Gap, and Bristoe
Station, directly in Pope's rear, was reached on the same evening, while a
detachment drove a Federal post from Manassas Junction. On the 27th the
immense magazines at the Junction were destroyed. On his side Pope had soon
discovered Jackson's departure, and had arranged for an immediate attack on
Longstreet. When, however, the direction of Jackson's march on Thoroughfare
Gap became clear, Pope fell back in order to engage him, at the same time
ordering his army to concentrate on Warrenton, Greenwich and Gainesville.
He was now largely reinforced. On the evening of the 27th one of his
divisions, marching to its point of concentration, met a division of
Jackson's corps, near Bristoe Station; after a sharp fight the Confederate
general, Ewell, retired on Manassas. Pope now realized that he had
Jackson's corps in front of him at the Junction, and at once took steps to
attack Manassas with all his forces. He drew off even the corps at
Gainesville for his intended battle of the 28th; McDowell, however, its
commander, on his own responsibility, left Ricketts's division at
Thoroughfare Gap. But Pope's blow was struck in the air. When he arrived at
Manassas on the 28th he found nothing but the ruins of his magazines, and
one of McDowell's divisions (King's) marching from Gainesville on Manassas
Junction met Jackson's infantry near Groveton. The situation had again
changed completely. Jackson had no intention of awaiting Pope at Manassas,
and after several feints made with a view to misleading the Federal scouts
he finally withdrew to a hidden position between Groveton and Sudley
Springs, to await the arrival of Longstreet, who, taking the same route as
Jackson had done, arrived on the 28th at Thoroughfare Gap and, engaging
Ricketts's division, finally drove it back to Gainesville. On the evening
of this day Jackson's corps held the line Sudley Springs-Groveton, his
right wing near Groveton opposing King's division; and Longstreet held
Thoroughfare Gap, facing Ricketts at Gainesville. On Ricketts's right was
King near Groveton, and the line was continued thence by McDowell's
remaining division and by Sigel's corps to the Stone Bridge. At
Centreville, 7 m. away, was Pope with three divisions, a fourth was
north-east of Manassas Junction, and Porter's corps at Bristoe Station.
Thus, while Ricketts continued at Gainesville to mask Longstreet, Pope
could concentrate a superior force against Jackson, whom he now believed to
be meditating a retreat to the Gap. But a series of misunderstandings
resulted in the withdrawal of Ricketts and King, so that nothing now
intervened between Longstreet and Jackson; while Sigel and McDowell's other
division alone remained to face Jackson until such time as Pope could bring
up the rest of his scattered forces. Jackson now closed on his left and
prepared for battle, and on the morning of the 29th the Confederates,
posted behind a high railway embankment, repelled two sharp attacks made by
Sigel. Pope arrived at noon with the divisions from Centreville, which, led
by the general himself and by Reno and Hooker, two of the bravest officers
in the Union army, made a third and most desperate attack on Jackson's
line. The latter, repulsing it with difficulty, carried its counter-stroke
too far and was in turn repulsed by Grover's brigade of Hooker's division.
Grover then made a fourth assault, but was driven back with terrible loss.
The last assault, gallantly delivered by two divisions under Kearny and
Stevens, drove the Confederate left out of its position; but a Confederate
counter-attack, led by the brave Jubal Early, dislodged the assailants with
the bayonet.

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