Book: Voice Production in Singing and Speaking

W >> Wesley Mills >> Voice Production in Singing and Speaking




When we consider the marvellous complexity of structure of one of the
higher animals, and the amazing variety of its functions, the question
naturally arises as to how all this is brought about without any sort
of clashing of the interests of one part with those of another. Why is
it that the stomach has enough and not too much blood? By what means
has Nature solved the problem of supplying more oxygen to parts in
action than to those at rest? How is it that one set of muscles acts
with instead of antagonizing another set, as in any complicated series
of movements, such as walking?

To bring about this harmonization, or _co-ordination_, the nervous
system has been provided. As the nervous and muscular systems are of
preeminent importance in voice-production, they will now be considered
with more detail than it is necessary to give to other systems.

Complicated as is the nervous system, modern advances in the sciences
of anatomy and physiology have made the comprehension of the subject
easier. It is now known that the nervous system, in spite of its wide
ramifications, is also made up of cells which are structurally and
functionally related to each other, and make connection with every
part of the whole community, the body. A nerve-cell, or _neurone_, may
be very complicated in its structure because of its many branches
or extensions from the main body of the cell.

[Illustration: FIG. 4. Body of a nerve-cell of the spinal cord,
specially stained so as to show the minute structure. (Schaefer's
_Histology_.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 5. A large nerve-cell from the spinal cord of the
ox, magnified 175 diameters. (Schaefer.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 6. A cell of another form, from the superficial or
outer part of the greater brain (cortex cerebri). The great amount of
branching is suggestive of the power to receive and to transmit
nervous influences (impulses) from various other cells; in other
words, complexity of structure suggests a corresponding complexity of
function.]

[Illustration: FIG. 7. Representation of the manner in which a nerve
is seen to terminate in a muscle, such ending being one form of
"nerve-ending" termed a "muscle plate." It tends to emphasize the
close relationship existing between muscle and nerve, and to justify
the expression "neuro-muscular mechanism," the nervous system being as
important for movements as the muscles. (Schaefer's _Histology_.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 8. Three muscle-fibres lying beside each other,
with the small blood-vessels (capillaries) around and between them.
Such are the appearances presented under the microscope by skeletal or
striped muscles such as those of the larynx. (Schaefer.)]

It may be said, in general terms, that the nervous _centres_, the
brain and the spinal cord, which are parts of one anatomical whole,
are characterized by the presence of the cell-bodies as well as their
extensions, while nerves consist only of the extensions or arms of the
cell-bodies. The nerve-cell whose body is in the top of the brain may
have an extension or arm which may reach practically to the end of the
spinal cord, and there make communication with another cell whose arm,
in turn, may reach as far as the toe. Such nerve arms or extensions
constitute the _nerve-fibres_, and bundles of these _nerves_, or
_nerve-trunks_.

Usually nerve-fibres make connection with the cells of an organ by a
special modification of structure known as a _nerve-ending_. A nervous
message or influence (_nerve-impulse_) may pass either to the
centre--_i.e._, toward a cell-body--or from it; in other words, a
nervous impulse may originate in the centre or in some organ more or
less distant from it; a nervous impulse may be _central_ or
_peripheral_. Nearly all central impulses, we now know, arise because
of the peripheral ones. One may illustrate this important relation by
a telegraph system. The message a railroad operator sends out--_e.g._,
that which determines whether a train is to be held at a certain
station or sent on--might depend wholly on information received from
another office. The extra flow of blood to the stomach when food
enters it is owing to such a relation of things. The food acts as a
stimulus to the ends of the nerve-fibres, and, in consequence, there
is an ingoing (_afferent_) message or impulse, and, by reason of this,
an outgoing (_efferent_) one to the muscle-cells of the small
blood-vessels, owing to which they contract less strongly and the
calibre of these vessels is increased; hence more blood reaches the
smallest vessels of all (_capillaries_.) Such a physiological relation
of things is termed _reflex action_. For such reflex action there are
required structurally at least two neurones or nerve-cells, and
functionally a stimulus of a certain strength and quality. Of course,
if more blood passes to the stomach there must be less somewhere else,
as the total volume of the blood is limited. The value of the
knowledge of such a fact is obvious. It must be unwise to exercise
vigorously immediately after meals, for this determines blood to the
muscles which would serve a better purpose in the digestive organs.
For a like reason the singer who would do his best before the public
will refrain from taking a large meal before appearing.

As this subject of reflex action is of the highest importance, the
reader is advised to make himself thoroughly familiar with the
principles involved before perusing the future chapters of this work.
Fig. 16 shows the structural relations for reflex action. It also
indicates how such nervous relations may be complicated by other
connections of the nerve-cells involved in the reflex action. It will
be seen that they make many upward connections with the brain, in
consequence of which consciousness may be involved. Ordinarily one is
more or less conscious of reflex action, though the will is not
involved; in fact, a willed or voluntary action is usually considered
the reverse of a reflex or involuntary action. But for a reflex action
the brain is not essential. As is well known, a snake's hinder part
will move in response to a touch when completely severed from the head
end; and movements of considerable complexity can be evoked in a
headless frog.

Herein, then, lies the solution of the problem. This is Nature's way
of bringing one part into harmonious relations with another. As by a
telegraphic system the most distant parts of a vast railway system may
be brought into harmonious working, so is it with the body by means of
the nervous system. The nerve-centres correspond to the heads of the
railway system, or, perhaps more correctly, to the various officials
resident in some large city who from this centre regulate the affairs
of the whole line.

The muscular system is made up of cells of two kinds, those
characteristic of the muscles used in ordinary movements, and those
employed for the movements of the internal organs. The muscles of the
limbs are made up of striped muscle-cells; those of the stomach, etc.,
of unstriped cells. These latter are slower to act when stimulated,
contract more slowly, and cease to function more tardily when the
stimulus is withdrawn.

The muscular mechanisms used by the singer and speaker are of the
skeletal variety.

If it be true that the welfare of one part of the body is bound up
with that of every other, as are the interests of one member of a firm
with those of another, in a great business, it will at once appear
that the most perfect results can follow for the voice-user only under
certain conditions. However perfect by nature the vocal mechanism, the
result in any case must be largely determined by the character of the
body as a whole. The man of fine physique generally has naturally more
to hope for than one with an ill-developed body.

In the natural working of the body the stimulus to a muscle is
nervous; hence we may appropriately, and often to advantage, speak of
_neuro-muscular_ mechanism, the nervous element being as important as
the muscular.

In a later chapter it will be shown that the work of the singer and
speaker when most successfully carried out must be largely reflex in
nature--a fact on which hang weighty considerations with regard to
many questions, among them methods of practice, the influence of
example, etc.--be he ever so much the natural artist. It will be the
writer's aim, however, to give such warnings and advice as may assist
each reader in his own best development. Many who began with a
comparatively poor physical stock in trade have surpassed the
self-satisfied ones who trusted too much to what nature gave them.
Singers as well as others would do well to believe that _Labor omnia
vincit_.


SUMMARY.

The same fundamental physiological principles apply to the lowest and
to the highest animals. To all belong certain properties or qualities.
As structure is differentiated, or as one animal differs from another
owing to greater or less complexity of form, there is a corresponding
differentiation of function, none, however, ever losing the
fundamental properties of protoplasm. Each organ comes to perform some
one function better than all others. This is specialization, and
implies advance among animals as it does in civilization.

The neuro-muscular system is of great moment to the voice-user. He is
a specialist as regards the neuro-muscular systems of the vocal
mechanism. But the same laws apply to it as to other neuro-muscular
mechanisms. It is of great theoretical and practical importance to
recognize this, and that one part of the body is related to every
other, which relationship is maintained chiefly by the nervous system,
and largely through reflex action.




CHAPTER III.

BREATHING CONSIDERED THEORETICALLY AND PRACTICALLY.


If the old orator was right in considering _delivery_ as the essence
of public speaking as an art, it may with equal truth be said of
singing, the term being always so extended in signification as to
imply what Rossini named as the essential for the singer--_voice_.

Looking at it from the physiological point of view, we may say that
the one absolutely essential thing for singers and speakers is
breathing. Without methods of breathing that are correct and adequate
there may be a perfect larynx and admirably formed resonance-chambers
above the vocal bands, with very unsatisfactory results. The more the
writer knows of singers and speakers, the more deeply does he become
convinced that singing and speaking may be resolved into the correct
use of the breathing apparatus, above all else. Not that this alone
will suffice, but it is the most important, and determines more than
any other factor the question of success or failure. Breathing is the
key-note with which we must begin, and to which we must return again
and again.

The extent to which this subject has been misunderstood,
misrepresented, and obscured in works on the voice, and its neglect by
so large a number of those who profess to understand how to teach
singing and public speaking, are truly amazing. That many should fail
to fully appreciate its importance in attaining artistic results is
not so surprising as that the process itself should have been so ill
understood, especially as it is open to any one to observe in himself,
or in our domestic animals, Nature's method of getting air into and
out of the body.

[Illustration: FIG. 9. A front view of parts of the respiratory
apparatus. (Halliburton's Physiology.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 9. A back view of the parts represented in Fig. 9.
(Halliburton's Physiology.)] [Transcriber's Note: numbered thus in
original.]

[Illustration: FIG. 10 (Spalteholz). A view of the lower part of the
trachea, dividing into the main bronchial tubes, which again branch
into a tree-like form. The air-cells are built up around the
terminations of the finest bronchial tubes, of which they are a sort
of membranous extension.]

[Illustration: FIG. 11 (Spalteholz). Shows well the relations of
heart, lungs, and diaphragm. The lungs have been drawn back, otherwise
the heart would be covered almost wholly by them. It will be noted
that the heart-covering is attached to the diaphragm. The fact that
the stomach and other important organs of the abdomen lie immediately
beneath the diaphragm is a significant one for the voice-user.
Manifestly, a full stomach and free, vigorous breathing are
incompatible.]

This misapprehension is in all probability to be traced to the
dependence of the student and teacher on tradition rather than
observation--on authority rather than rational judgment. If a great
teacher or singer makes any announcement whatever in regard to the
technique of his art, it is natural that it should be considered with
attention, but it may prove a great misfortune for the individual to
accept it without thoughtful consideration. The author will
illustrate, from time to time, the truth of the above.

In this and all other chapters of this work the student, by which term
I mean every one who is seriously interested in the use of the voice,
is recommended to give attention, before reading on any subject, to
the illustrations employed, perusing very carefully the explanatory
remarks beneath them.

The author considers the summaries at the conclusion of the chapters
of much importance. They not only furnish exact and condensed
statements of the main facts and principles involved, but afford the
reader a test of the extent to which the foregoing chapter has been
comprehended. As the author has a horror of what is termed "cramming,"
he expresses the hope that no student will use these synopses, which
have been prepared with much care, for so great a misuse of the mind
as cramming implies.

Breathing is essential for life. The oxygen of the air is, of all
food-stuffs, the most important. Without it a mammal will perish in
less than three minutes; hence there is no need of the body so urgent
as that of oxygen. It is also of great moment that the waste--the
carbon dioxide, or carbonic acid gas--should be got rid of rapidly;
nevertheless, it is not this gas which kills when the air-passages are
closed, though it is highly deleterious. The body is a sort of furnace
in which combustions are continually going on, and oxygen is as
essential for these as for the burning of a candle, and the products
are in each case the same.

Whether the voice-user respires, like others, to maintain the
functions of the body, or whether he employs the breathing apparatus
to produce sound, it is to be borne in mind that he uses the same
physical mechanisms, so that the way is at once clear to consider the
anatomy and physiology of the breathing organs.

It has been already pointed out that respiration is in all animals, in
the end, the same process. The one-celled animal and the muscle-cell
respire in the same way, and with the same results--oxidation,
combustion, and resulting waste products. In the animal of complicated
structure special mechanisms are necessary that the essential oxygen
be brought to the blood and the useless carbon dioxide removed. The
respiratory organs or tract include the mouth, nose, larynx, trachea,
bronchial tubes, and the lung-tissue proper or the air-cells.

The mouth, nose, and larynx, in so far as they are of special
importance in voice-production, will be considered later.

The air enters the trachea, or windpipe, through a relatively narrow
slit in the larynx, or voice-box, known as the _glottis_, or _chink of
the glottis_, which is wider when air is being taken in
(_inspiration_) than when it is being expelled (_expiration_). Life
depends on this chink being kept open. The windpipe is composed of a
series of cartilaginous or gristly rings connected together by softer
tissues. These rings are not entire, but are completed behind by soft
tissues including muscle. It follows that this tube is pliable and
extensible--a very important provision, especially when large
movements of the neck are made, during vigorous exercise, and also in
singing and speaking.

The bronchial tubes are the tree-like branches of the trachea, and
extend to the air-cells themselves, which may be considered as built
up around them in some such fashion as a toy balloon on its wooden
stem, but with many infoldings, etc. (Fig. 10). The air-cells are
composed of a membrane which may be compared to the walls of the
balloon, but we are of course dealing with living tissue supplied by
countless blood-vessels of the most minute calibre, in which the blood
is brought very near to the air which passes over them.

Throughout, the respiratory tract is lined with mucous membrane.
Mucous membranes are so named because they secrete mucus, the fluid
which moistens the nose, mouth, and all parts of the respiratory
tract. When one suffers from a cold the mucous membrane, in the early
stages, may become dry from failure of this natural secretion; hence
sneezing, coughing, etc., as the air then acts as an irritant.

At no time do we breathe pure oxygen, but "air"--_i.e._, a mixture of
21 parts of the former with 79 parts of an inert gas, nitrogen; and
there is always in the air more oxygen than the blood actually takes
from it in the air-cells.

The intaking of air is termed by physiologists _inspiration_, and its
expulsion _expiration_, the whole process being _respiration_.
Expiration takes a very little longer than inspiration, and the
rapidity of respiration depends on the needs of the body. The more
active the exercise, the more rapidly vital processes go on, the more
ventilation of the tissues is required and the more is actually
effected. When one is at rest breathing takes place at the rate of
from 14 to 18 inspirations and expirations in the minute; but of all
the processes of the body none is more variable than respiration,
and of necessity, for every modification of action, every movement,
implies a demand for an increased quantity of oxygen. It is not
surprising, therefore, that the very exercise of singing tends in
itself to put one out of breath.

[Illustration: FIG. 12. In the above, the shaded outlines indicate the
shape of the bony cage of the chest during inspiration, and the
lighter ones the same during expiration. The alterations in the
position of the ribs and in the diameters of the chest, giving rise to
its greater capacity during inspiration, are evident.]

[Illustration: FIG. 13. This figure is intended to indicate, in a
purely diagrammatic way, by dotted lines, the position of the
diaphragm (1) when inspiration is moderate, and (2) when very deep.
The unbroken curved line above the dotted ones indicates the position
of the diaphragm (only approximately, of course) after expiration.]

Attention will now be directed to some facts that it is of the utmost
importance to clearly understand, if one is to know how to breathe and
the reasons for the method employed. The lungs are contained in a
cavity the walls of which are made up of a domed muscular (and
tendinous) structure below, and elsewhere of bony and cartilaginous
tissues filled in with soft structures, chiefly muscles. This cage is
lined within by a smooth membrane which is kept constantly moist by
its own secretion. The lungs are covered by a similar membrane, both
of these fitting closely like the hand to a glove, so that there are
two smooth membranes in opposition. It cannot be too well remembered
that these two, the inner surface of the chest walls and the outer
surface of the lungs, are in the closest contact. This is so whatever
the changes that take place in the size and shape of the chest. The
lungs are concave below, and so fit accurately to the fleshy partition
between the chest and the abdomen which constitutes the lower boundary
of the chest, if we may use the term "chest" somewhat loosely. Above,
suiting the shape of the chest, the lungs are somewhat conical.

The pressure of the air tends of itself to expand the lungs, which are
highly elastic, even when one does not breathe at all. But if more
air is to enter there must be additional space provided; hence greater
expansion of the lungs can only follow an enlargement of the chest
cavity in one or in all directions. These are spoken of as
_diameters_. It follows that it is possible to conceive of the chest
being enlarged in three, and only three, directions; so that it may be
increased in size in its vertical, its transverse, and its
antero-posterior diameter, or diameter from before backwards.

This expansion, as in the case of all other movements, can be effected
only by muscles, or, to speak more accurately, by neuro-muscular
mechanisms. Exactly what muscles are employed may be learned from the
accompanying illustrations and by observation. While it is highly
important to know in a general way which muscles are chiefly
concerned, or, rather, where they are situated, it cannot be deemed
essential for every reader to learn their names, attachments, etc.,
down to the minutest details, as in the case of a student of anatomy
proper. The author does, however, deem it of the highest importance
that the student should learn by actual observation on his own person
that his chest does expand in each of the three directions indicated
above.

It is not necessary to dissect to observe muscles; in fact, they can
be seen in action only on the living subject. All who would really
understand breathing should study the chest when divested of all
clothing and before a sufficiently large mirror. He may then observe
the following during a fairly deep inspiration:

1. The chest is enlarged as a whole.

2. The abdominal walls move outward.

3. The ribs pass from a more oblique to a less oblique position, and
may become almost horizontal; their upper edges are also turned out
slightly, though this is not so easy to observe.

4. Again, in the case of a very deep and sudden inspiration, the
abdomen and the lower ribs also are drawn inward.

The changes above referred to are brought about in this way:

1. The total enlargement is due to the action of many muscles which
function in harmony with each other.

2. The chief changes are brought about by those muscles attached
between the ribs (_intercostales_); but these act more efficiently
owing to the cooeperation of other muscles which steady the ribs and
chest generally, such as those attached to the shoulder-bones and the
upper ribs; indeed, the most powerful inspiration possible can only be
effected when most of the other muscles of the body are brought into
action. One may observe that even the arms and legs are called into
requisition when a tenor sings his highest tone as forcibly as
possible, though this is often overdone in a way to be condemned. Art
should not be reduced to a gymnastic feat.

The most important muscle of inspiration is the _diaphragm_, or
midriff, because it produces a greater change in the size of the chest
than any other single muscle. Some animals can get the oxygen they
require to maintain life by the action of this large muscle alone,
when all other respiratory muscles are paralyzed. As it is so
important, and above all to the voice-user, it merits special
consideration.

In studying the action of a muscle it is necessary to note its _points
of attachment_ to harder structures, either bone or cartilage. Nearly
always one such point is more fixed than the other, and from this the
muscle pulls when it contracts.

The diaphragm is peculiar in that it is somewhat circular in shape and
is more or less tendinous or sinew-like in the middle. Being attached
to the spinal column behind and to the lower six or seven ribs, when
the muscle contracts it becomes less domed in shape--less convex
upward--and of course descends to a variable degree depending on the
extent of the muscular contraction. As to whether the ribs, and with
them the abdominal muscles, are drawn in or the reverse, is determined
wholly by the degree of force with which the contraction takes place
and the extent to which it is resisted. Throughout the body muscles
are arranged in sets which may either cooeperate with or antagonize
each other, as required. The forcible bending of one's arm by another
person may be resisted by one through the use of certain muscles. In
this the action of the muscles which bend the arm is imitated by the
agent seeking to perform this movement for us. The muscles acting in
opposition to certain others are said to be their _antagonists_.

Were the diaphragm to contract moderately the ribs would be but little
drawn in, even if no muscles acted as antagonists. But, as a matter of
fact, this domed muscle descends at the same time as the ribs ascend,
because of the action of the muscles attached to them. The diaphragm
being concave below toward the abdomen, the contents of this cavity
fit closely to its under surface. There are found the liver, stomach,
intestines, etc.--a part of great practical importance, as will be
shown presently.

Naturally, in breathing, the organs of the abdomen, especially those
above, are pressed down somewhat with the descent of the diaphragm in
inspiration, and, in turn, push out the abdominal walls. If, however,
the midriff contract so powerfully that the lower ribs are drawn
inward, the abdominal walls follow them. Although the actual extent of
the descent of the diaphragm is small in itself, since the total
surface is large it effects a very considerable enlargement of the
chest in the vertical diameter.

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