Book: Voice Production in Singing and Speaking

W >> Wesley Mills >> Voice Production in Singing and Speaking




[Illustration: FIG. 39. This illustration is meant to show more
especially the relative position of observer and observed. The
observer, on the right, is wearing the head-mirror, while two
throat-mirrors seem to be in position--in reality, the same mirror in
two different positions. One is placed so as to reflect the picture of
the nasal chambers, especially their hinder portion. The walls of the
nose, etc., may for the purposes of this illustration be considered
transparent, so that the scroll (turbinated) bones, etc., come into
view. The tongue is protruded. The light, not seen in this figure, is
usually placed on the left of the subject, as in Fig. 38.]

It being a fundamental law of light that the angle of reflection and
the angle of incidence correspond--are, in fact, the same--it was
necessary that the throat-mirror should be set at an angle to its
stem, so that the light passing up by reflection from the larynx
should, when striking on the surface of this plane throat-mirror, be
reflected outward in a straight line to the eye, which must be in the
same horizontal plane with it. This and all the other facts and
principles involved can only be understood by a careful inspection of
the accompanying figures, which it is hoped will make the subject
plain. The throat-mirror is none other than the mouth-mirror of the
dentists, and in use by them before Garcia discovered how it might be
employed to throw light on the larynx, in a double sense.

The essentials, then, for a view of the interior of the larynx are: A
source of illumination; a mirror to reflect the light reaching it from
this source into the back of the throat and larynx; and a second
mirror to reflect the light outward which is, in the first instance,
reflected from below, from the interior of the larynx. The principles
involved are few and simple, but their application to any particular
case is not easy, and is sometimes well-nigh impossible.

The throat-mirror should be placed against that curtain suspended in
the back of the mouth cavity known as the soft palate, so that it must
be pushed back out of the line of view. But many persons find such a
foreign object in the throat a sufficient cause of unpleasant
sensations so that retching may be the result. Generally there is a
tendency to raise the tongue behind in a way fatal to a view of the
mirror and the picture reflected from it. These difficulties, however,
can be overcome by a deft hand using the mirror brought to "blood
heat" by placing it in warm water or holding it over some source of
heat, as a small lamp, and directing the subject observed to breathe
freely and _through the mouth_. This latter tends to quiet that unruly
member, the tongue, and lead it to assume the flat position so
important to an unobstructed view. It is for the same reason the
author urges mouth breathing during speaking and singing. No other
tends so well to put the tongue in the correct position.

The extent to which one feels the annoyance of a small mirror held
gently in the throat depends really on the amount of attention
directed to it, and the degree of determination with which he resolves
to exercise self-control. The author has examined an entire class of
students of voice-production and found only one person who did not
succeed in at once giving him a view of the larynx. But it must be at
once said that of all persons examined by the author during his
experience as an investigator of voice-production and in special
medical practice, none have been able to show their throats, the
larynx included, so well as speakers and, above all, singers; which in
itself indicates that speaking and singing do give control of the
throat--that all its parts respond to the will of the observed person.
The author must further, however, remark that he has found this
control associated not so much with vocal power as with intelligent
study. Intelligence tells in music a good deal more than many people
have yet learned to believe; but on this point the reader will long
since have learned the author's views--in fact, so deep are his
convictions on this subject that he hopes he may be pardoned for
frequent reference to them, in one form or another.

One anatomical fact may be so invincible that a view of the glottis
cannot be obtained at all: the epiglottis may so overhang the opening
to the larynx that a good view of its interior is absolutely
impossible, in other cases only occasionally and under very favorable
circumstances. Such cases are, however, of the rarest occurrence,
while there are not a few persons in whom one may even see down the
windpipe as far as its division into the two main bronchial tubes, and
inflammation may thus often be traced from the vocal bands far down
the mucous membrane common to the larynx, windpipe, etc.

As has been remarked previously, it is only by the use of the
laryngoscope that one can see the vocal mechanism of the larynx in
action, so that for investigation laryngoscopy is essential.
Auto-laryngoscopy, or the use of the laryngoscope by the subject to
observe his own larynx, has its special difficulties and advantages,
the greatest of the latter being, perhaps, that the observer may use
himself as often and as long as he will, while he would hesitate to
make observations on others at great length or with frequent
repetition. There are no new principles involved in auto-laryngoscopy.
The observer must simply see that a good light is reflected into his
own throat, and that the picture in his throat-mirror is reflected
into another into which he may gaze, an ordinary small hand-glass
usually sufficing.

Only rarely is the individual met who can himself so control his
tongue that assistance from the observing laryngologist is
unnecessary. In by far the greater number of instances the tongue,
after being protruded, must be gently held by the left hand of the
observer, a small napkin covering the tip of the organ. The
auto-laryngologist must, of course, control his own tongue, and better
if without any hand contact.

It is scarcely necessary to say that before placing the mirror in the
mouth its temperature must be tested by touching it for a moment
against the back of the hand.

Nearly all the facts of importance in phonation, several of which have
already been referred to, or will be mentioned in the "Summary and
Review" below, could only have been discovered by the use of the
laryngoscope. The difference in the larynx in the two sexes and in
different types of singers and speakers, though open to ordinary
observation, dissection, etc., are still better brought out by the use
of the instrument now under consideration.

One naturally expects any organ to be larger and heavier in the male
than in the female, and to this the larynx is no exception; and
individual differences are equally pronounced. There may be almost if
not quite as much difference between the larynx of a barytone and of a
tenor as between that of an ordinary man who is not a public
voice-user and the larynx of the ordinary woman. The larynx of the
contralto may in its size and general development remind one of the
same organ in the male. The vocal bands of the bass singer may be to
those of a soprano as are the strings of a violoncello to those of a
violin--using these examples, it will be understood, merely as rough
illustrations.

The change in the size of the larynx produced by even a few months'
judicious practice may be astonishing. As already hinted, it is
important that in bringing about this development exclusive attention
should not be given, as is sometimes done, especially in the case of
speakers, to the lower tones, though it is not so important for them
as for singers to have an even development up to the highest range.

But again the author would urge the voice-user to aim at attaining
that delicate control of muscles (neuro-muscular mechanisms, to speak
more scientifically) so important for the finest vocal effects, rather
than be satisfied with mere power. The vocalist and speaker must
indeed be athletic specialists, but they should not aim at being like
the ordinary athlete, much less mere strong men of the circus.

It is said that Madame Mara within her range of three octaves could
effect 2100 changes of pitch, or 100 between each two tones of the
twenty-one in her compass, which would represent a successive change
in the length of the vocal bands of a small fraction, possibly not
more than 1/17000 of an inch--something unapproachable in nicety in
the use of any other instrument. Even if we make large deductions from
the above, the performances of those who have reached the highest
laryngeal control must remain marvellous, all the more when it is
remembered that this control over the larynx, to be efficient for
musical purposes, must be accompanied by a corresponding mastery of
the art of breathing. Is it necessary to point out that such wonderful
development and control can only be attained after years of steady
work by the best methods?

At one period in the life of the individual changes of such importance
take place in the entire nature, physical, mental, and moral, that he
becomes almost a new being. This epoch is known as the period of
puberty or adolescence, and may be considered that of the gravest
moment during one's whole life; for then, for better or worse, great
changes inevitably occur. It is incomparably the period of greatest
development, and, unfortunately, there may also spring into being,
with striking suddenness, physical and psychic traits which cause the
greatest anxiety. In any case, the thoughtful must then regard the
youth or maiden with feelings of the deepest interest, if not anxiety;
and in the case of the voice-user, especially the singer, this period
may come laden with the destinies of the future.

The vocal organs, especially in males, undergo very marked changes in
relative proportions and actual growth. So marked is this that the
boy soprano may actually become a barytone, or, unfortunately, no
longer have a singing voice at all.

[Illustration: FIG. 40 (Gruenwald). If this be compared with the next
illustration (FIG. 41), some of the differences between the larynx of
the male and that of the female may be noted. The vocal bands in FIG.
40, being those of a male, are heavier and wider. They are more
covered by the epiglottis than in the other case--that of a female
(FIG. 41). The false vocal bands are well seen in both cases, and by
their redness (dark in the figures) contrast with the whiteness of the
true vocal bands. In both illustrations the bands are in the
inspiration position.]

[Illustration: FIG. 41 (Gruenwald). Laryngoscopic picture of the female
larynx--to be contrasted with that of a male, shown in FIG. 40.]

[Illustration: FIG. 42 (Gruenwald). In this case, owing to the subject
having a cold, it is with difficulty that the true can be
distinguished from the false vocal bands, so reddened (dark, in the
figure) were the former, with corresponding changes in the character
of the voice. This view was obtained as the subject was phonating, so
that the vocal bands are approximated somewhat closely.]

[Illustration: FIG. 43 (Gruenwald). Shows the larynx as it may be seen
only by the use of the laryngoscope. The above is an example of the
appearance of the vocal bands during a deep inspiration, and in this
subject, as in those illustrated by FIGS. 40, 41, the circumstances
were so favorable that the observer could see even the trachea, the
rings of which are indicated in the picture. The reader will bear in
mind that in this and all laryngoscopic pictures, while right remains
right, front becomes back, and back front, so that the back of the
larynx appears toward the observer--_i.e._, is lowest on the page.]

So far as the larynx is concerned the changes are less pronounced,
usually, in the girl; nevertheless, the period is one of such change
for the female that the greatest care should be exercised at this
time, especially in the case of city girls. The body requires all its
available resources for the growth and development which is so
characteristic of this biological and psychological epoch; hence it
may be ruinous for the future of the girl if at this time the same
strain is put upon her as on the adult, whether in the direction of
study, physical exertion, or social excitement, and of course the
voice must suffer with all the rest. The farmer who would attempt to
work the colt of a year or two old as he does the horse of four or
five would be regarded as either grossly ignorant of his business or
utterly reckless as to his own interests, if not positively cruel. Do
our modern usages not show a neglect of facts of vital moment still
more marked? Unfortunately, the woman all her life must live, to a
greater or less extent, on a sort of periodic up-curve or down-curve
of vitality; and that this fact is so generally ignored by society and
educators is one of those peculiarities of our age at which, in spite
of its great advancement in so many directions, a future generation
must wonder.

To use the voice when the health is even slightly disordered is not
without risk to the vocal organs, and it is the clear duty of every
teacher of vocal culture, at all events, to allow no practice and to
give no lessons that imply the actual use of the vocal organs at these
times. Nor is this a great loss, rightly considered, for the
intellectual side of the subject, which requires so much attention,
may readily be made to take the place of the vocal for a few days.

The so-called "breaking" of the voice is largely confined to males,
because the growth changes, etc., as already said, are most marked in
boys. At this time, also, there is frequently an excess of blood
supplied to the larynx, with possibly some degree of stagnation or
congestion, which results in a thickening of the vocal bands, unequal
action of muscles, etc., which must involve imperfections in the
voice. In all such cases common sense and physiology alike plainly
indicate that rest is desirable. All shouting, singing, etc., should
be refrained from, and even ordinary speech, as much as possible, in
very marked cases, especially when the individual is even slightly
indisposed or weary.

In other cases the changes are so gradual and so little marked that it
is not at all necessary to discontinue vocal practice, if carried out
with care and under the guidance of an intelligent friend or teacher;
but because of the possibility of the voice changing in quality, there
is no time when the advice of an experienced and enlightened teacher
or laryngologist is more necessary.

The condition present in the vocal bands and larynx generally of the
boy at puberty is more or less akin to that found in fatigue,
ill-health, hoarseness, etc., as well as in old age, when muscular
action is very uncertain, so that in the weak larynx, as elsewhere,
the old man may approach the undeveloped youth, and for much the same
reason--lack of co-ordinated or harmonious control of parts.

These remarks imply, of course, that the youth has already begun
studies in voice-production, and that raises another important
question, viz.: When should the individual who is sufficiently endowed
musically begin to sing, or study public utterance practically in some
of its forms?

No faculty develops earlier than the musical, and this is a strong
argument in itself for the early study of music, apart altogether from
other considerations about which there is room for more difference of
opinion. Should the child get his musical development through the use
of his own musical instrument or another? If he shows natural ability
for the use of the voice, should he be trained very early?

Against early training may be urged the facts above referred to--the
liability of great changes taking place in the larynx at puberty,
especially in the boy. But marked are the changes that take place in
other parts of the body also, and this is not urged against exercises
for general development, for the boy. It is a remarkable fact that
many of the great composers sang as boys, and possibly this has had
something to do with their writing music for the voice, later, when
they were most of them by no means fine singers; but on this too much
stress should not be laid.

The question at issue is to be sharply marked off from another--the
public appearance of children as soloists, reciters, etc. In this case
the question is more complicated, and cannot be settled by
physiological considerations alone. Our problem is also to be kept
apart from another very important question--the singing of children,
or, indeed, adults, in classes, choirs, etc.

If a child shows himself a desire to sing, and especially if he has
musical ability above the average and a voice that is of fair range
and quality, one can scarcely see why he should not be encouraged, and
placed under a wise teacher; for it is doubtful if there be any better
way of developing the ear and musical nature, even if in future the
child shows that he will accomplish more as an instrumentalist. Such
vocal training tends to development of the larynx, and that can
scarcely be wholly lost, no matter what changes puberty may bring
about. At the same time, one must take care not to be too hopeful in
regard to child singers. Nature gives us some surprises, and not
always pleasant ones.

But as to the cultivation of the vocal organs with the view of
producing a beautiful speaking voice by processes akin to those used
for the singer, as the teaching of this work constantly implies, there
can be no doubt. Unless the individual acquires a respect for the
beautiful in the speaking voice when young, it is feared he may never
get it, as the existing state of things only too clearly shows.

It is hoped that enough has been said on this subject to indicate the
principles, at all events so far as physiology is concerned, on which
the decisions regarding some weighty questions must be made.

The question of singing with others, as usually carried out in
schools, seems to the author a very doubtful procedure, to say the
least, as for those with fine throats it may prove injurious, and for
those who have feeble musical endowments it does little; but of this
subject and concerted singing generally again.




CHAPTER VIII.

FURTHER CONSIDERATION OF BREATHING, LARYNGEAL ADJUSTMENT, ETC.


Experience proves that breathing, for the speaker and singer, is one
of those subjects that may be very inadequately comprehended by the
student, and, the author regrets to say, may be positively
misrepresented by teachers and writers.

Some--indeed, a great many--teachers direct their students to employ
"abdominal" or "diaphragmatic" breathing, others "clavicular"
respiration. A little consideration must convince those who have read
the chapters on breathing that such distinctions, in which one part of
an entire process is treated as if it were the whole, cannot be
justified. By "clavicular" breathing some mean upper chest breathing,
and others a form of respiration in which the shoulders (clavicles, or
key-bones) are raised with inspiration in an objectionable manner. The
latter is, of course, to be condemned; yet, very exceptionally, a
tenor of excellent training may feel that he can, under the
circumstances of the hour, reach a certain tone very high in his range
only by the utmost exertion. We all know how a singer's reputation may
be more or less ruined should he fail to reach such a high note--one,
indeed, by which he may, owing to the vitiated taste of the public,
have acquired a reputation beyond his artistic merits. Under these
circumstances such a singer might be justified in a momentary use of
every resource of what physiologists term _forced respiration_,
including clavicular breathing; but in general any raising of the
shoulders should be absolutely avoided.

When "clavicular" breathing is used in the sense of upper chest
breathing, it is correct as far as it goes, but the term is not a
happy one to employ in this sense, and it has led to error in theory
and practice.

In the same way, "diaphragmatic" breathing is perfectly correct, but
its exclusive use cannot be justified, for Nature teaches us
otherwise. It is true that the lower part of the chest, which always
should expand with the descent of the diaphragm, is wider than the
upper; it is true that by a very well-developed diaphragmatic
breathing a singer or speaker is fairly well provided with breath
power; but why teach this method exclusively, when thereby the
voice-user is being robbed of possibly from one quarter to one third
of his total breathing efficiency?

It is likely that teachers have insisted on diaphragmatic breathing,
especially in the case of females, because, unfortunately, prevalent
modes of dress so restrict the lower chest, etc., that individuals
instinctively seek relief in upper chest or clavicular breathing, in
which case it may be observed that the actual breath power of the
singer is very small. It cannot be denied that few people ever
adequately fill the chest--least of all, few women--and if admonitions
as to diaphragmatic breathing accomplish this purpose, the practice
must be commended. But another remedy should obviously precede this
one: the respiratory prisoner should first be released.

No doubt, in the most vigorous singing and speaking the lower part of
the chest, with the diaphragm, is of the greatest importance, but
often both the speaker and the singer, as in a short, rapid passage,
require to take breath, and the only way in which they can really meet
the case is by a short, more or less superficial action of the
respiratory apparatus, in which the upper chest must play the chief
part. There is no opportunity to fill the whole chest, so that any
admonition in regard to abdominal breathing is then quite out of
place.

The fact is, the voice-user should have control of his whole breathing
mechanism, and use one part more or less than another, or all parts
equally and to the fullest extent, as the circumstances require; and
if the student has not already learned such control, the author
recommends his practising breathing with special attention first to
filling the upper chest completely, and then the lower. It must be
remembered that for a long time breathing, for the voice-user, must be
a voluntary process, which, as has been pointed out, is not the usual
and natural one for the individual when not phonating, which latter
is essentially reflex or involuntary. The voice-user, in other words,
must, with a definite purpose in view, take charge of himself. In
time, breathing for him too will become reflex--_i.e._, correct
breathing for the purposes of his art will become a habit. It must be
pointed out that the breathing for any particular composition,
literary or musical, should be carefully studied out, for this is
nothing else than determining how this part of the voice-user's
mechanism can be employed with the best artistic result. This,
fortunately, is now recognized by a large number of teachers, for the
fact is, the artistic is at present much better understood and
appreciated than the technical; were it not so, such erratic
literature on the subject of breathing could never have appeared.

On another aspect of the subject there is room for much greater
difference of opinion. Among even eminent singers and teachers there
is lack of agreement in regard to the part the diaphragm and abdomen
should play in the most vigorous (_fortissimo_) singing.

Singers of renown practise what may be termed a sort of "forced"
abdominal or diaphragmatic breathing. The breath is so taken that the
whole chest is filled, the diaphragm brought well down, and the
abdominal walls drawn in (retracted), which gives the singer, in all
parts above and below, a bellows with tense walls in all parts, with
the great advantage that such breathing permits of a firmness
otherwise unattainable, and he is enabled to exert his breath force
with great certainty and power, and, as some maintain, with all the
control necessary for even delicate effects.

[Illustration: FIG. 44. Intended to express to the eye the two views
of respiration discussed in the body of the work (p. 113-117). The
dotted lines indicate the form of the chest and abdomen advocated by
some as the best for the singing or speaking of long and vigorous
passages.]

Against this it has been urged that it is unnatural, not according to
what is found in man and other animals in nature. It is perhaps
forgotten that when we make a great effort, as in lifting, we put the
breathing apparatus into just this state; we gird up our loins--or the
equivalent of that process--so that this method cannot be said to be
contrary to nature. The only question seems to be as to whether it is
necessary and advantageous, or wasteful of energy. For ordinary
efforts it does not seem to be necessary, though the chest must in
singing and speaking always be _held_ more or less full, not by any
deliberate and painful effort, but in a quiet, unobtrusive way.

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